Clinical Pattern and Imaging Findings of Intracranial ... · University of Khartoum Graduate College Medical & Health Studies Board Clinical Pattern and Imaging Findings of Intracranial - [PDF Document] (2023)

University of Khartoum

Graduate College

Medical & Health Studies Board

Clinical Pattern and Imaging Findings of Intracranial Space

Occupying Lesions in Children

By

Dr. Gawahir Mohamed Ahmed Mukhtar

M.B.B.S (U of K) 1999

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirements of clinical MD in

Paediatrics and Child Health

March 2007

Supervisor

Prof. Zein A. Karrar

FRCP(Lond)FRCPCH(UK),MRCP(UK)

U of K

University of Khartoum

Graduate College

Medical & Health Studies Board

Clinical Pattern and Imaging Findings of Intracranial Space

Occupying Lesions in Children

By

Dr. Gawahir Mohamed Ahmed Mukhtar

M.B.B.S (U of K) 1999

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirements of clinical MD in

Paediatrics and Child Health

March 2007

Supervisor

Prof. Zein A. Karrar

FRCP(Lond)FRCPCH(UK),MRCP(UK)

U of K

Co supervisor

Dr. Mohamed A/R Arbab

MD,Ph.D

Consultant Neurosurgeon

U of K

بسم اهللا الرحمن الرحيم : تعاىل اهللاقال يضلون وما يضلوك أن منهم طآئفة لهمت ورحمته عليك الله فضل ولوال { لمكوع والحكمة الكتاب عليك الله وأنزل شيء من يضرونك وما أنفسهم إال

{عظيما عليك الله فضل وآان تعلم تكن لم ما

صدق اهللا العظيم

نساءسورة ال

)113(االية

CONTENTS

Page

• Dedication • Acknowledgement

i ii

• Abstract (English) iii • Abstract (Arabic) v • Abbreviations vii • List of tables viii • List of figures

xi

CHAPTER ONE 1. INTRODUCTION AND LITREATURE REVIEW 1 1.1. Definition 1 1.2. Classification of intra cranial space occupying lesion 1 1.3. Brain tumours

1.3.1. Incidence and distribution 1.3.2. Risk factors 1.3.3. Genetics

1.3.4. Immune factors 1.3.5. Chemicals 1.3.6. Head trauma and injury

1.3.7. Tumour types 1.3.8. Brain tumours’ warning signs 1.3.9. Diagnosis

1.4. Intracranial abscesses 1.4.1. Epidemiology 1.4.2. Pathology 1.4.3. Presentation 1.4.4. Differential Diagnosis includes

2 2 7 8 8 9 10 10 12 13 14 14 14 16 17

1.4.5. Investigations 1.4.6. Management

17 18

1.5.Tuberculosis 1.5.1. Epidemiology 1.5.2 Causative agent 1.5.3. Pathogenesis 1.5.4. Clinical Features

1.5.5. Diagnosis

20 20 22 22 23 25

1.6. Schistosomiasis 1.6.1. Pathogenesis

27 28

1.6.2. Clinical syndromes 1.6.3. Diagnosis

Page 29 30

1.7. Arachnoid cysts 31 1.8. Dermoid and epidermoid cysts 32 1.9. Toxoplasmosis 1.9.1. Epidemiology 1.9.2. Clinical Manifestations 1.9.3. Diagnosis

33 33 33 34

1.10.Hydatid disease 1.10.1.Geographical distribution 1.10.2.Incidence 1.10.3. Clinical Features 1.10.4.Diagnosis

35 35 35 37 37

1.11.Mycetoma 37 1.12.Aneurysms and arteriovenous malformation 1.12.1 Clinical Features 1.12.2.Vascular malformation 1.12.3.Diagnosis

38 39 40 41

JUSTIFICATIONS 42 OBJECTIVES

43

CHAPTER TWO 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 44 2.1. Study design 44 2.2. Study Area 44 2.3. Study Duration 44 2.4. Study population and sampling technique 44 2.5. Inclusion criteria 45 2.6. Exclusion criteria 45 2.7. Methods 45 2.8. Data Analysis 47 2.9. Ethical Issues 47

CHAPTER THREE 3. RESULTS 49 3.1. Demographic characteristic of children in the study population 49 3.2. Pattern of presentation 49 3.3. Clinical examination 53 3.4. Sites of lesions 3.4.1.Sites of lesions in relation to sex 3.4.2.Sites of lesions in relation to age group

53 53 58

3.4.3. Sites of lesions in relation to the commonest symptoms

Page 58

3.5. Nature of lesions 64 3.6. Imaging findings 3.7. Types of lesions in relation to operative treatment 3.8. Types of lesions in relation to shunt operation 3.9. Commonest detected lesions 3.9.2. Abscess 3.9.3. Medulloblastoma 3.9.4. Other intracranial space occupying lesion 3.9.5. Other lesions detected

70 81 83 83 89 93 95 99

CHAPTER FOUR DISCUSSION 101

CONCLUSION 114

RECOMMENDATIONS 116

REFERENCES 118

Appendix (Questionnaire)

i

To my father, mother, sisters and brothers

To my friends everywhere…

for their love, care and encouragement

ii

My great thanks to Prof. Zein .A.Karrar for his meticulous

supervision, guidance and patience. My gratitude to Dr. Arbab my

co supervisor for his help and support.

I am thankful my colleagues in neurosurgical department for their

great help and support.

My thanks extend to Mr. Hassan Ali for his statistical analysis .

I do appreciate the effort made by Mrs. Fadia and Miss. Amona in the

computer work .

My thanks to all other colleagues not mentioned individually here.

iii

AABBSSTTRRAACCTT

A cross sectional and prospective hospital based study in Elshaab

Teaching Hospital (National Center For Neurological Science),

Khartoum Teaching Hospital and Dr Gafaar Ibn Auf Children's

hospital. The duration of the study was from 1st of September 2005

to the end of February 2007.

The objectives were to study the clinical presentations, causes

and the imaging findings associated with the intracranial space

occupying lesions.

The study included 103 children; male to female ratio was

1.7:1. One third of children were below 5 years of age, 31%

between 5-10 years and 35% were above 10 years. The study tools

included questionnaire, clinical examination and investigations

including brain C.T and MRI studies.

The commonest intracranial SOL was astrocytoma (35.0%),

followed by abscess (19.4%) and medulloblastoma in (10.7%).

Headache was found to be the main presenting symptom

occurring in (59.2%).Cranial nerves involvement was the

iv

commonest clinical sign detected in (43.7%) followed by gait

disturbance detected in (42.7%) respectively. The commonest

fundal change was papilloedema (18.5%).Most of lesions detected

were supratentorial (72.8%) and they were found to be commonly

benign in nature (54.7%), malignant lesions were confined mainly

to infratentorial area (78.6%).

Malignant lesions affected males more than females (1.6:1).

Ventricular dilatation was the common imaging finding detected

in (46.7%). Malignant lesions (65.6%) needed V.P shunt operation

more than benign lesions (35.0%).

Congenital heart disease (4.8%) was a risk factor for brain

abscess.

Tuberculoma was detected less than expected (1.9%).

The main recommendations are: To consider headache and

vomiting early warning signs, proper evaluation of children and

use of CT and MRI to detect lesions early. Decentralization of

services and training of general doctors and pediatricians.

v

ص األطروحةلخمست

يف مستشفيات الشعب، اخلرطوم التعليمي وجعفر بن عوف طعية املستقبلية املقأجريت هذه الدراسة م وقد كان من أهداف هذه 2007م إىل اية فرباير 2005لألطفال يف الفترة مابني االول من سبتمرب

الدارسة معرفة األعراض والعالمات املصاحبة لآلفات اليت تشغل حيزا داخل التجويف الدماغي باإلضافة . صور الرنني املغنطسىي واألشعة املقطعية يفإىل املسببات والعالمات املصاحبة

.1:1.7 مريض وقد كانت نسبة الذكور لالنات103 مشلت الدراسة سنوات 10 - 5من املرضى أعمارهم بني % 31, سنوات 5من املرضى أعمارهم اقل من % 34 .سنوات 10من املرضى أعمارهم أكثر من % 35و

والفحوصات املخربية إضافة ى مشلت وسائل الدراسة استبيان للمرضى باإلضافة إىل الكشف السر ير .لألشعة املقطعية و الرنني املغنطيسي

مث % 19.4يليها اخلراج % 35 وجد أن أكثر هذه اآلفات شيوعا هي ورم اخلاليا النجمية %.10.7 النخامي ىالورم الرب عم

ىوعند الكشف السر ير%. 59.2 كما خلصت الدراسة بان أكثر اإلعراض شيوعا هو الصداع . شيوجد أن أكثر عالمة هي إصابة األعصاب الدماغية تليها إضرابات خطوة امل

%).18.5(بني كشف قاع العني أن أكثر تغيري هو الودمة احلليمية ،ووجد أن اآلفات %54.7وهى محيدة ىف % 72.8 وجدت معظم اآلفات فوق خيمة املخيخ

اآلفات اخلبيثة ظهرت ىف الذكور أكثر من اإلناث بنسبه %.78.6 يف خيمة املخيخ تاخلبيثة معظمها حت)1:1.6.(

وقد . جد أن االتساع البطنيىن هو األكثر شيوعا يف األشعة املقطعية والرنني املغناطيسي للمخ واىل عملية تركيب جهاز صمام بني البطني %) 65.6(احتاج االتساع البطنىي املرتبط باآلفات اخلبيثة

%).35(والربتون أكثر من اآلفات احلميدةعلى حسب اآلفات الدماغية ) أشعة مقطعية ورنني مغناطيسي ( توجد تغريات خمتلفة يف التصوير الدماغي

.

vi

وهم أكثر عرضه من غريهم % 4.8 وجد أن نسبة األطفال املصابون بتشوهات خلقية يف القلب ).1.9(لإلصابة خبراجات املخ كما وجد أن التورم الدرين يف املخ اقل مما هو متوقع

وصيات العامة اهلامة متثلت يف التعامل اجلاد مع أعراض الصداع خرجت هذه الدراسة بعدد من الت الستخالص األعراض والعالمات األولية املصاحبة ىالتاريخ املرضى التفصيلي والكشف السر ير,و القي

استخدام األشعة املقطعية والرنني املعناطيسى للمخ مبكرا الكتشاف اآلفات الدماغية , لآلفات الدماغية تبىن المزكرية اخلدمات الصحية عن طريق توفري خدمات تشخيصية إقليمية وكادر , ها األوىليف أطوار

خمتص وتبىن تدريب اختصاصي أطفال يف أمراض اجلهاز العصيب وجراحة املخ واألعصاب والتشخيص .االشعاعى

ABBREVATIONS

vii

ADH Antiduretic hormone AIDS Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ALL Acute lymphocytic leukaemia AVM Arteriovenous malformation CNS Central nervous system CPA Cerebellopontine angle CT Computed tomography HC Hydatid cyst MRA Magnetic resonance angiogram MRI Magnetic resonance imaging NS Neuro-schistosomiasis PNET Primitive neuroectodermal tumour SOL Space occupying lesion TB Tuberculosis TBM Tuberculous meningitis VDRL Veneral disease research labrotory V.P Ventriculoperitoneal

LIST OF TABLES

Page

viii

Table 1: Individual cranial nerves involvement in children

with intracranial SOLs in the study population…………………55

Table 2: Fundal changes in children with intracranial SOLs in

the study population……………………………………………55

Table 3: Sites of lesions (supratentorial and infratentorial) in relation

to sex in the study population………………………………….57

Table 4: Sites of lesions (supratentorial and infratentorial) in relation

to age in the study population…………………………………..60

Table 5: Headache in relation to sites of lesions in the study

population…………………………………………………..........60

Table 6: Vomiting in relation to sites of lesions in the study

population……………………………………………………….62

Table 7: Seizures in relation to sites of lesions in the study

population…………………………………………………….….62

Table 8: Motor weakness in relation to sites of lesions in the

study population……………………………………………….….63

Table 9: Gait disturbance in relation to sites of lesions in the study

Page

population………………………………………………………………63

ix

Table 10: Fundal changes in relation to sites of lesions in the study

Population………………………………………………….…65

Table 11: Types of lesions in relations to sex in the study

Population………………………………………………….…..69

Table 12: Types of lesions (benign and malignant) in relation to

age group in the study population……………………………..71

Table 13: Types of lesions in relation to sites in the study

population…………………………………………………..….72

Table 14: Headache in relation to types of lesions in the study

Population…………………………………………………..…..72

Table 15: Vomiting in relation to types of lesions in the study

Population……………………………………………………….73

Table 16: Seizures in relation to types of lesions in the study

population……………………………………………………….75

Table 17: Motor weakness in relation to types of lesions in the

study population……………………………………………….….75

Table 18: Gait disturbance in relation to types of lesions in the study

Population……………………………………………..................76

Page

Table 19: Fundal changes in relation to types of lesions in the study

x

Population…………………………………………………….…77

Table 20: The commonest imaging findings in relation to sites of

lesions in the study population…………......................................80

Table 21: The commonest imaging findings in relation to types of

lesions benign and malignant) in the study population……….….82

Table 22: The relation between types of lesions and the V.P shunt

operation in the study population……...........................................84

Table 23: Other histological types of lesions in intracranial SOLs in the

population.......................................................................................98

Table 24: Other lesions detected with intracranial SOLs in the study

Population....................................................................................100

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

page

Figure 1: The distribution of gender for the study population......................50 Figure 2: The distribution of age for the study population.....................,.....51

Figure 3: The presenting symptoms in the study population........................52

Figure 4: The clinical signs in patients in the study population....................54

Figure 5: Supratentorial and infratentorial classification for the lesions in

the study population........................................................................56

Figure 6: Sites of lesions in the study population.........................................59

Figure 7: Natures of the lesions in the study population..............................66

Figure 8: Types of the lesions in the study population.................................67

Figure 9: Histological types of lesions in the study population....................68

Figure 10:Imaging findings of patients in the study population...................79

Figure 11: The presenting symptoms of patients with Astrocytoma in the

Study population..........................................................................85

Figure 12: The clinical signs of patients with Astrocytoma in the study

population.................................................................................... 87

Figure 13: Sites of Astrocytoma in the study population..............................88

Page

xii

Figure 14: The presenting symptoms for patients with Abscess in the

study population...........................................................................90

Figure 15: The clinical signs in patients with Abscess in the study

Population.......................................................................................91

Figure 16: Sites of Abscess in the study population.....................................92

Figure 17: The presenting symptoms of patients with medulloblastoma

in the study population...................................................................94

Figure 18: The clinical signs of patients with Medulloblastoma in the

study population..............................................................................96

Figure 19: The commonest sites for Medulloblastoma in the study

population......................................................................................97

1

Chapter One

1.INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1. Definition: The term intracranial space occupying lesion is generally used to

identify any lesion, whether vascular or neoplastic or inflammatory in origin

which increases the volume of intracranial contents and leads to a rise in the

intracranial pressure (1).

1.2. Classification of intra cranial space occupying lesions:

I. Congenital: Dermoid, Epidermoid, Teratoma.

II. Traumatic: Subdural and Extradural haematoma

III. Inflammatory : Abscess, Tuberculoma, Syphilitic gumma, Fungal

granulomas.

IV. Parasitic : Cysticercosis, Hydratid cyst, Amebic abscess, Schistosoma

japonicum.

V.Neoplasms;

a) Tumors arising from neural structures: Gliomas – astrocytoma,

ependymoma, oligodendroglioma, germinoma, medulloblastoma.

b) Tumors arising from appendages: Meningioma, schwannoma,

2

chondroma,osteoma.

c) Pituitary lesions: Pituitary adenoma, Craniopharyngioma.

d) Vascular lesions: Angioma, Hemangioblastoma, Papilloma of choroid

plexus.

e) Secondary neoplasms.

1.3.Brain Tumours:

The term "brain tumours" refers to a mixed group of neoplasms

originating from intracranial tissues and the meninges with degrees of

malignancy ranging from benign to aggressive. Each type of tumour has its

own biology, treatment, and prognosis and each is likely to be caused by

different risk factors. Even "benign" tumours can be lethal due to their site in

the brain, their ability to infiltrate locally, and their propensity to transform

to malignancy. This makes the classification of brain tumours difficult sand

creates problems in describing the epidemiology of these conditions(2).

1.3.1. Incidence and Distribution:

Malignant tumours of the brain are a rare occurrence accounting for

approximately 2% of all cancers in adults. Approximately 4400 people are

newly diagnosed with a brain tumour each year in the UK compared to over

40000 women with breast cancer and approximately 25000 men with

3

prostate cancer. The overall annual incidence rate of all brain tumours is 7

per 100000 population(2).

Brain tumours are second only to leukaemia as the most prevalent

malignancy in childhood, and they account for the most common solid

tumours at this age group, comprising 15–25% of all paediatric

malignancies(1). Different proportions of histological subtypes are present in

children compared to adults, with gliomas (approximately 40%) and

medulloblastomas (approximately 25%) mainly arising infratentorially, with

the remainder, germ cell tumours and craniopharyngiomas, occurring in the

midline. There is a small peak in incidence in early childhood accounted for

by medulloblastomas. Studies in the USA, Sweden, and the UK have

reported what appear to be true rises in incidence over the last three decades

which are unexplained by changes in diagnostic practice, treatment(2).

Metastatic brain tumours are common in adults but relatively rare in

children(3). A recent study by the National Cancer Institute shows that a

significant increase in childhood brain tumours brings them the dubious

distinction as the most common paediatric tumour.

In 1974, brain tumours occurred at an annual rate of 2.35 per 100,000

children younger than 15 years, which increased to a corresponding value of

3.45 in 1994. Similar changes in incidence were noted in ALL, which

4

showed a corresponding change in annual incidence from 2.74 to 3.33 per

100,000 children younger than 15 years. This rise in brain tumour incidence

among children is attributed to improved diagnostic methods and more

awareness of brain tumours among physicians. However, environmental

factors cannot be completely ruled out(4) .

The intracranial tumours of childhood differs from the adult forms in

term of distribution within the brain, histological characteristics and

prognosis (5).They can present in many ways depending on the location, type

and rate of growth of tumour and the age of the child(5).

In the study conducted by Abu Salih and Abdul Rahman the incidence

of brain tumours in the Sudan in the period between 1971-1981 was 7% (123

patients) of all neurosurgically admitted patients (1757 patients). They

concluded that their series showed a high incidence of meningioma and very

low incidence of acoustic neuroma compared to regional and international

series (6) . Incidence of brain tumours in the Sudan as reported by Abu Salih

and Abdul Rahman was as Follows(6): Menengiomas 45.5% , Gliomas

39.8%, Pituitary adenomas 10.6%, Craniopharyngiomas 5.7%, Acustic

neuromas 0.8% and metastatic tumours 6.5% .

Brain tumours were found to be more common in males (63.4%) and

most commonly affect those in the third decade, followed by those in the

5

fourth decade(6).

Bella Ahmed Elsherif, studied the pattern of malignant disease in

children presenting to Khartoum hospital during the period July 1982-

May1983 in one hundred children and he found that the age distribution was

similar to other works for all forms of cancer, apart from the peak incidence

of leukemia, which was above the age of 4 years, while in Western

countries, it was reported to be between 2-4 years. The male preponderance

in all forms of cancer. Lymphoma (25% of all forms of cancer), was the

leading malignant disease. Leukemia was the fourth in rank order (13%).

Wilms tumour ranked the second in his study (14%). The percentage of

retinoblastoma in the study (11%) contrasted significantly with the paucity

of this form of cancer elsewhere. Carcinoma nasopharynx(10%) was an

other good example for such a discrepancy. Brain tumours ranked the

seventh in his study (7%). Interestingly, some rare forms of cancer such as

skin, liver and ovarian cancer, in Africa as well as Western series, have been

found relatively prominent (2%) (7).

In Saudi Arabia, malignant astrocytoma accounts for 16% of all

intracranial space-occupying lesions(8) and although patients harboring this

tumour are being managed in most neurosurgical units all over the country

published data from Saudi Arabia relating to the survival of patients with

6

malignant astrocytoma has been limited to one report which focused on

malignant astrocytoma in children(8).

In Nairobi, Wanyoike reported that thirty seven children were treated

for posterior fossa tumours between 1998 and 2003, twenty four were

females while thirteen were males giving a male: female ratio of 1:1.8. The

age varied between 2-16 years. Cerebellar symptoms were the most common

mode of presentation (30%) followed by headaches and vomiting. Twenty

percent of patients were blind at presentation probably due to chronic effects

of raised intracranial pressure. Out of 11 patients with histological diagnosis

of meduloblastomas, over 99%, were females and only one was a male.

Astrocytomas were evenly distributed at five males and six females.

Posterior fossa tumours in this study are more common in females than in

males, M: F ratio of 1:1.8. Over 90% of medulloblastomas are found in

female children making it a predominantly female tumour as opposed to

available literature (9).

Mwang studied the frequency, mode of presentation and outcome

following treatment of gliomas in patients treated at the Kenyatta National

Hospital in Nirobi. Two hundred and fourteen histologically confirmed

intracranial tumours were included. Ninety seven (45.8%) of these were

gliomas of which eighty one were astrocytomas, ten ependymomas and six

7

oligodendrogliomas. Meningiomas were the next common tumours (34.4%).

Gliomas affected the young age group most, with the peak in the first decade

of life. Males were most affected with a male to female ratio of 1.4:1.

Features of increased intracranial pressure were the commonest mode of

clinical presentation. The parietal region was the commonest site of

intracranial gliomas (37.5%) (10).

In India, Desai reported that 102 patients under the age of 12 years

with cerebellar astrocytomas were retrospectively analyzed. The clinical

features were predominantly related to increase intracranial pressure and the

location of the tumour. Twenty-six tumors were located in the vermis and 76

in the cerebellar hemisphere. The brain stem was involved in 20 patients. All

102 patients had a preoperative contrast-enhanced CT scan. Midline vermian

tumors were predominantly solid and enhancing, whilst the hemispheric

tumors were cystic and nonenhancing (11).

1.3.2. Risk factors:

Brain tumours develop as a consequence of accumulated genetic

alterations that permit cells to evade normal regulatory mechanisms and

destruction by the immune system. These alterations may be in part or

wholly inherited but any agents—chemical, physical or biological—that

damage DNA are possible neurocarcinogens(2).

8

1.3.3. Genetics:

Genetic predisposition to developing brain tumours is associated with

certain inherited syndromes such as tuberous sclerosis, neurofibromatosis

types 1 and 2, nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome, and syndromes

involving adenomatous polyps. These syndromes account for 1–2% of all

tumours. The Li-Fraumeni cancer family syndrome is also associated with a

predisposition to brain tumours and specifically with mutations in the TP53

gene. Mutations in constitutional (that is, non-tumour tissue) TP53 have been

linked to patients with gliomas(2).

Familial aggregations of brain tumours occurring in different

generations and sib ships occur very rarely and the patterns of inheritance are

inconsistent. In these situations common environmental exposures cannot be

excluded as an explanation. Overall, it appears that only a very small

proportion of brain tumours can be due to the effect of inherited

predisposition (11).

1.3.4. Immune factors: Viruses, Allergies & Infections:

In experimental animal models brain tumours can be induced by a

number of viruses, including retroviruses, papovaviruses, and adenoviruses

but there is little epidemiological support for this occurring in humans. At

9

one time it was thought that live polio vaccines contaminated with SV40

might increase the risk of brain tumours, but this was not supported by more

detailed powerful studies. Direct examination of brain tumour tissue for

evidence of a viral cause has shown the presence of different viral DNA

sequences in some cases within separate pathological series. However, the

mechanisms of how a virus might initiate malignant transformation remain

unknown (11).

Atopic diseases such as asthma, eczema, and allergies can be markers

of immune dysfunction. In a number of independent studies from different

countries atopic conditions have been shown to be "protective", particularly

in the development of gliomas. Patients with gliomas report fewer symptoms

of atopy compared to control subjects (12).

In utero infections with influenza and chicken pox (varicella) have

been cited as a risk factor but the case for this is not strong. Some recent

epidemiological work on a series of children from the north west of England

diagnosed with brain tumours has shown geographical distributions which

are suggestive of an infectious aetiology for some of the tumour types (12).

1.3.5. Chemicals:

N-nitroso compounds are found in the environment but the most

10

common source of human exposure is through foods, with vegetables and

cured meats being major sources. Alkylating agents, such as methyl

nitrosurea, are known transplacental carcinogens, particularly for brain

tumours in rats (11).

1.3.6. Head trauma and injury:

Patients with brain tumours inevitably recall occurrences of trauma

or injury to the head, and studies of patients’ reports are therefore subject to

"recall bias". Some epidemiological investigations of the relation between

head trauma/injury and the subsequent development of a tumour have

attempted to overcome this by examining medical records, but these mainly

fail to demonstrate any relation (12).

1.3.7. Tumour types:

Molecular cytogenetic techniques have helped to understand that brain

tumours arise from genetic disruptions in cells, causing the cells to become

neoplastic, but the causes of genetic disruption remain unclear. Brain

tumours in the same family members are extremely rare. Furthermore, brain

tumours can occur anywhere in the intracranial space (13). The tumour is

named according to the cellular origin and the microscopic appearance. Most

childhood brain tumours arise in the supporting cells of the brain (glia) and

11

are called gliomas. The most common is the astrocytoma, derived from

astrocytes, which are major supportive cells. Astrocytes constitute nearly

40% of the total CNS cell population and are widely spread throughout the

central nervous system including the optic nerves (13). The tumours are

classified histologically from grade I through grade IV. Grade I and II are

histologically benign, but grade III and grade IV are malignant, hence

glioblastoma. Other tumours are ependymomas, gangliogliomas, choroid

plexus papillomas, and oligodendrogliomas. Other common brain tumours in

childhood arise in the primitive nerve cells, and are much more common in

children than in adults (14). When they occur in the cerebrum, they are called

“primitive neuroectodermal tumour (PNET). In the infratentorial location

they are called medulloblastomas, while those in the pineal gland are called

pineoblastomas. They are malignant, grow rapidly, and tend to spread

through the CSF (14).

A third type of childhood brain tumour arises in the non-neuronal

embryonal cells. They are germ cell tumours, craniopharyngiomas, or

dermoids. Tumours arising in the meninges, nerve sheaths, or pituitary gland

have an expansible nature with little or no infiltration to the brain or spinal

cord. They are meningiomas, neurinomas, and pituitary adenomas

respectively. They usually occur in adults, but can appear in children (15).

12

1.3.8. Brain tumours’ warning signs:

Space-occupying lesions such as brain tumours increase the

intracranial pressure. This causes the brain structures to shift within the

intracranial space, which may be life-threatening. Many childhood tumours

are found in the skull midline, which often produces hydrocephalus. In such

cases, hydrocephalus is the primary cause of symptoms rather than the

tumour itself (4).

Initial symptoms are early morning intermittent headaches and nausea,

lasting for several months or years. Then, the headaches become more

frequent and intense with emesis accompanied by dizziness, weakness,

unsteadiness, and double vision. Increasing sleepiness, gait disturbance,

ocular changes (abducens palsy in particular), visual disturbance, seizures,

tremors or weakness of the extremities are more definitive signs for

childhood brain tumour. The presentation depends on age group, the

tumour’s location and histology. Infants and younger children typically

present with irritability and rapidly expanding head size. They may also

present with failure to thrive or precocious puberty (4).

Papilloedema is another sign of hydrocephalus or a mass-induced rise

in intracranial pressure. If papilloedema is persistent and untreated blindness

13

may result. Shifts of brain contents through the tentorial opening or the

foramen magnum may occur, causing twisting and compression of the brain

stem, leading to bradycardia, hypertension, and irregular respirations. Due to

compression of the third nerve, the ipsilateral pupil is enlarged and does not

react to the light, the patient exhibits changes in body and limb tone and

posture (decortication and decerebration), and stops breathing(15).

1.3.9. Diagnosis:

CT images show skull, blood clots, and the calcified mass which

appears white, while the brain is gray, and the CSF, fat and air appear black.

Contrast dye injected intravenously enhances visualization of the blood

vessels and most pathological conditions such as tumours. Thus, CT scan is

capable of disclosing not only a tumour mass, its location and extension but

also any associated pathological changes such as brain oedema around the

tumour, hydrocephalus, hemorrhage, cystic formation, calcification, etc.

The risks are the requirement of sedation for the young child, possible

allergic reaction to the intravenous contrast dye, and radiation exposure.

Published reports warn that more than 20 rads may cause later cataracts (11).

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which involves a high-powered

14

magnet, became available in the mid 1980’s. MRI images allowing a more

detailed examination than is possible with CT.

Due to the risks involved in standard angiography, MRA (magnetic

resonance angiography) has replaced angiography in most situations (11).

1.4. Intracranial abscesses:

Intracranial abscesses are uncommon, serious, life-threatening

infections. They include brain abscess and subdural or extradural empyema.

A high number of brain abscesses are polymicrobial (16).

1.4.1. Epidemiology:

Brain abscesses are rare in developed countries but are a significant

problem in the developing world; they occur more frequently in males and in

those younger than 40 years old. A decrease in meningitis due to the

Haemophilus influenzae vaccine has reduced the prevalence in young

children. The prevalence of brain abscess is higher in patients with HIV

infection (16).

1.4.2. Pathology:

It begins with vascular seeding of the brain, producing early cerebritis

15

during the first 1-3 days. Inflammatory infiltrates of polymorphonuclear

cells, lymphocytes and plasma cells follow within 24 hours. By 3 days the

surrounding area shows a marked increase in perivascular inflammation. The

late cerebritis phase develops approximately 4 to 9 days after infection

during which time the centre becomes necrotic, containing a mixture of

debris and inflammatory cells. Neovascularity is maximal at this time. Early

reactive astrocytes surround the zone of infection and proceed to early

capsule formation between approximately 10 to 13 days. At this time, the

necrotic centre shrinks slightly and a well developed peripheral fibroblast

layer evolves. The late capsule stage continues to evolve between 14 days

and 5 weeks with continual shrinking of the necrotic centre and relative

decrease in the inflammatory cells. The capsule thickens as reactive

astrocytes proliferate (17).

Causative organisms include: Bacteria: common bacterial causes include

Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococci, Bacteroides species and Listeria.

Fungi: Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptococcus, Coccidioides, Histoplasma,

Blastomyces.

Protozoa: e.g. Toxoplasma gondii, Entamoeba histolytica, Trypanosoma

16

cruzi, Schistosoma.

Helminths, e.g. Taenia solium.

The frequency of fungal brain abscess has increased because of the

frequent administration of broad-spectrum antimicrobials,

immunosuppressive agents, and corticosteroids. They can originate from

infection of adjacent structures, e.g. otitis media, dental infection,

mastoiditis, sinusitis. Abscess formation can also develop following blood-

borne spread from a remote site, e.g. in patients with cyanotic congenital

heart disease, endocarditis, dental caries (18). In at least 20% of cases, no

source can be identified.

1.4.3. Presentation:

Symptoms of onset may be sudden or subacute over several weeks.

Common presenting symptoms include fever, headache, changes in mental

state (drowsiness, confusion), focal neurological deficits, seizures, nausea

and vomiting, neck stiffness.

A suddenly worsening headache, followed by emerging signs of

meningism, is often associated with rupture of the abscess (15).

The main signs include: fever, focal motor or sensory deficits, raised

17

blood pressure and bradycardia associated with raised intracranial pressure

papilloedema, ataxia, confusion, drowsiness, bulging fontanelle in infants.

1.4.4. Differential Diagnosis includes:

Meningitis, encephalitis, brain tumour or other intracranial space occupying

lesion.

1.4.5. Investigations:

Full blood count: marked leucocytosis. Raised ESR and CRP.

Renal function and electrolytes: serum sodium levels may be lowered as a

result of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone production.

At least two blood cultures should be taken and preferably before

antibiotics are started.

Serological tests are available for some pathogens. Lumbar puncture

and CSF analysis is rarely helpful (unless required to rule out meningitis)

and is contraindicated if increased intracranial pressure is present (15).

CT scanning is the investigation of choice(15), although MRI scan provides

greater contrast between cerebral oedema and the brain and early detection

of satellite lesions .MRI is especially useful for posterior fossa

18

abscesses(16).In addition, MRI with intravenous gadolinium contrast is

superior in demonstrating cerebritis surrounding oedema, the extent of the

mass effect, or associated venous thrombosis. MRI with or without

gadolinium is preferable to CT scan for demonstrating multiple lesions. The

evolution of the abscess can be followed radiologically. In the early

cerebritis stage, CT images reveal a low density lesion with ring

enhancement. In the late cerebritis and early capsule stage, well-formed, ring

enhancement is typically thin walled and uniform or nodular enhancement

should raise the possibility of an alternative cause. Delayed contrast scans

show diffusion of the contrast. Other ring enhancing lesions that may mimic

the image of the brain abscess include primary and metastatic tumour, a

resolving infarct or haematoma and rarely demyelinating disease (17).

Other investigations include, aspiration of abscess for culture and

biopsy of cerebral lesion.

1.4.6. Management:

Early treatment with antimicrobial therapy, anticonvulsant therapy and

measures to control increasing intracranial pressure is essential.

Initial antimicrobial therapy should be started immediately and then

19

modified according to the results of cultures. Initial therapy choices include

high doses of penicillins, metronidazole, either gentamicin or

chloramphenicol, vancomycin, meropenem and cephalosporins (e.g.

cefotaxime). If fungal cause is suspected then amphotericin, flucytosine

fluconazole or voriconazoleare indicated. The treatment of choice for

toxoplasmosis is a combination of pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine. Therapy

should be given intravenously for at least the first week. Corticosteroids:

intravenous dexamethasone is used if massive cerebral oedema is seen on

the CT scan (17).

Once an abscess has formed, surgical excision or drainage through a

burr hole, combined with prolonged antibiotics (usually 4-8 weeks), remains

the treatment of choice.

Aspiration is the most common procedure and is often performed using

a stereotactic procedure with the guidance of CT scanning or MRI.

Craniotomy is generally performed in patients with larger, multiloculated

abscesses and for those whose conditions failed to resolve.

Management of subdural or epidural empyema requires prompt surgical

evacuation of the infected site and antimicrobial therapy (17).

Mawang in Nairobi studied the aetiology, mode of presentation and

20

outcome following treatment of brain abscesses. Sixty five patients with

brain abscesses were seen at Kenyatta National Hospital. There were more

male patients than females (ratio 2.4:1). Thirty eight per cent of the patients

were children below the age of ten years. Trauma was the commonest cause

of brain abscess. The aetiology was unknown in 24% of the cases. Sixty

eight per cent of the patients had seizures. All the patients were diagnosed

by computerised tomography (CT) scanning (18).

1.5. Tuberculosis: 1.5.1. Epidemiology:

About 2000 million people in the world today are infected with

tuberculosis,(19) but only 10% develop clinical disease. In 2002

approximately 15,000 new cases of TB disease were diagnosed in the United

States. Of these, 6% were among children aged <15 years (20). Although the

number of cases in this age group has been decreasing since 1992, the

number co infected with HIV is uncertain because only a limited number of

U.S. children who have TB have been tested for HIV infection. Close

correlation exists between the observed incidence of TBM in children aged

0-4 years, and the population's annual average risk of infection with M

21

tuberculosis. The incidence of TBM has been calculated to represent 1% of

the annual risk of infection (21). The total number of tuberculosis cases in the

world is increasing (22).It is estimated that most of these new cases will be in

south east Asia (23) fuelled by the rapid spread of HIV. It has been predicted

that without intervention 200 million people alive today will develop TB (24).

An estimated Annual Risk of infection (ARI) of 1.8% which gives an

incidence of 90/100,000 smear positive cases puts Sudan among the high

prevalence countries for TB in the East Mediterranean Region (25).

The Sudan National Tuberculosis Programme (NTP) declared DOTS

all over in January 2002. The years 2004, 2005(of 70% case detection and

85% cure rate) (26).Percentage of admission with TB from all inpatients was

1.0% in 2000, and 0.6% in 2004. In addition, the percentage of death due to

the disease of admission: 11.2% in 2000, and 10.5% in 2004(27).

Mustafa Sid Ahmed studied the clinical pattern of intracranial space

occupying lesion in adults during the period 1998-1999 in 118 patients in

Sudan, and he found that tuberculoma represented (8.5%) (28).

22

1.5.2. Causative agent:

Tuberculous meningitis was first described as a distinct pathological

entity in 1836,and Robert Koch demonstrated that tuberculosis was caused

by Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 1882(29).M tuberculosis is an aerobic gram

positive rod that stains poorly due to its thick cell wall containing lipids,

peptidoglycans, and arabinomannans. The Ziehl-Neelsen stain uses the

properties of the cell wall to form a complex that prevents decolourisation by

acid or alcohol (30).

1.5.3. Pathogenesis:

The development of TBM is a two step process (31); M tuberculosis

bacilli enter the host by droplet inhalation, the initial point of infection being

the alveolar macrophage. Escalating localized infection within the lung with

dissemination to the regional lymph nodes produces the primary complex.

During this stage there is a short but significant bacteraemia that can seed

tubercle bacilli to other organs in the body. In those who develop TBM

bacilli seed to the meninges or brain parenchyma, forming small subpial or

subependymal foci. These are called Rich foci, after the original pathological

studies of Rich and McCordick(31). In about 10% of cases, particularly in

children, the primary complex does not heal but progresses. Tuberculous

23

pneumonia develops with heavier and more prolonged tuberculous

bacteraemia. Dissemination to the CNS is more likely, particularly if miliary

TB develops. The second step in the development of TBM is rupture of a

Rich focus into the subarachnoid space. This heralds the onset of meningitis

which if left untreated, will result in severe and irreversible neurological

pathology. In 75% of children the onset of TBM is less than 12 months after

the primary infection (32).A rare complication of TBM is tuberculous

encephalopathy. Usually occurring in a young child with progressive

primary TB, the presentation is of reducing conscious level with few focal

signs and minimal meningism. Diffuse oedema and white matter pallor with

demyelination are found pathologically. The pathogenesis is uncertain, but is

presumed to be immune mediated (33).

1.5.4. Clinical Features:

Recent contact with tuberculosis should be elucidated: several studies

have shown that between 70% and 90% of children have had recent contact

with TB (34). The prodrome is usually non-specific with no one symptom

predominating: 28% report headache, 25% were vomiting, and 13% had

fever (35). Only 2% reported meningitic symptoms.

In a review of 205 children only 38% had fever at presentation with 9%

24

reporting photophobia (35). 14% remained free from meningism throughout

the illness. Recent reviews confirm the wide variety of presentations seen

with TBM (36).

An Australian series of 58 patients found that on the day of admission

TBM was considered a diagnosis in 36% of cases, with 6% receiving

immediate treatment (34). The duration of presenting symptoms varied from

1 day to 9 months, although 55% presented with less than two weeks of

symptoms.

Adhesions can result in cranial nerve palsies (particularly II, III, IV, VI,

VII, and VIII), constriction of the internal carotid resulting in stroke, and

obstruction of CSF flow leading to raised intracranial pressure, reduced

conscious level, and hydrocephalus. Infarcts occur in about 30% of cases (37)

commonly in the internal capsule and basal ganglia, causing a range of

disorders from hemiparesis to movement disorders. Seizures are common,

especially in children and elderly people. Hydrocephalus, tuberculoma,

oedema, and hyponatraemia due to inappropriate ADH secretion can all

cause seizures (38).

Over the past 10 years there have been studies documenting the relation

between HIV and TBM. Although HIV infected patients with TB are at

25

increased risk of TBM, (39) the clinical features and outcomes of the disease

do not seem to be altered (40). Those with TBM and HIV often have

concomitant extrameningeal disease. In one report 65% had clinical or

radiographic evidence of extrameningeal TB on admission (39). In another

series 77% of those with HIV had clinical evidence of extrameningeal TB

compared with 9% in those without HIV(38).In more than half there may also

be a CNS tuberculoma(41) .These distinguishing characteristics may facilitate

the diagnosis of TBM in those with HIV.

1.5.5. Diagnosis:

Newer methods such as those involving the amplification of bacterial

DNA by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and comparable systems are

incompletely assessed, and are not suitable for widespread use in the

developing world. The careful and repeated search for acid fast bacilli with

Ziehl-Neelsen staining is still one of the most effective rapid diagnostic tests.

A history of recent TB contact is helpful (35) as is the presence of

extrameningeal TB (42). Tuberculin testing is of limited value. Early studies

found 22% of those with TBM were negative to 100 units PPD (43) .A recent

study demonstrated cumulative reactivity with 10-100 units PPD to be

75%(35) .Some studies suggest that tuberculin testing may be more useful in

26

children, with 86% having greater than 15 mm of induration with 5 units

purified protein derivative (PPD) (36).Abnormalities in the CSF depend on a

tuberculin reaction within the subarachnoid space. Those with depressed cell

mediated immunity may have atypical findings in the CSF. Acellular CSF in

elderly and HIV positive patients have been reported(38) .Lymphocytosis of

between 100 and 1000 cells/mm3 is more usual, although in the first 10 days

polymorphonuclear leucocytes may predominate(44). A raised CSF protein

occurs in most, and CSF glucose will be reduced in 70% (39).

Both CT and MRI of the brain will disclose hydrocephalus, basilar

meningeal thickening, infarcts, oedema, and tuberculomas. In a CT study of

60 cases of TBM in adults and children only three had normal brain scans(45).

Hydrocephalus was reported in 87% of children and 12% of adults. The

incidence of hydrocephalus is greater in the young, and increases with

duration of the illness. In children hydrocephalus is almost always present

after 6 weeks of illness (46). Infarcts are seen on CT in 28%, with 83%

occurring in the middle cerebral artery territory. The basal ganglia are the

most commonly affected region.

Both CT and MRI are sensitive to the changes of TBM, particularly

hydrocephalus and basal meningeal exudates, but they lack specificity (46).

27

The challenge facing new diagnostic strategies in TBM is that they

must improve on the sensitivity of conventional Ziehl-Neelsen staining and

culture, but maintain the specificity.

Adenosine deaminase is produced by lymphocytes and monocytes. Its

detection in CSF has been reported with variable success, with sensitivities

and specificities as high as 99% being suggested (47).

Serological techniques that detect the intrathecal synthesis of

antimycobacterial antibodies have been studied (47).

The advent of DNA amplification techniques such as PCR has turned

attention away from serological techniques.

1.6. Schistosomiasis:

Schistosomiasis associated with Schistosoma mansoni infection is

endemic in the Caribbean islands, the Middle East, South America, and

Africa and may be imported to any other area in the world via immigration

and travel to foreign lands. It is estimated that between 200 and 300 million

people are infected by S. mansoni worldwide (48). In Brazil, it is estimated

that between 10 and 12 million people have schistosomiasis mansoni(49).

Spread of the disease from rural to peri-urban regions has been recently

28

described (49). The infection is localized in the digestive system, but the

nervous system is the second most common involved site (50). Pittella&

Lana-Peixoto recorded that ova were found in the brain of 26% of patients

who have hepatosplenic S. mansoni infection. A study in Tanzania indicated

that 6% of non-traumatic myelopathies in endemic areas may be attributable

to schistosomiasis (51).

In Sudan: A study was conducted in Southern Sudan to determine the

prevalence of intestinal parasites among school children. A total of 275 stool

sample were examined. Hookworm with a prevalence of (13.1%) was the

predominant nematode followed by S. Mansoni (2.2%) (52).

Amir Eltayeb studied the prevalence of intestinal protozoa and parasites

infestations among under five children in Jabel Aweleia Governorate in 390

patient in the period September 2003 to September 2004 and he found that

schistosoma mansoni was found in 1 (0.3%) from the rural area (53) .

A parasitological survey of refugees based in Juba, involving 241 faecal

samples,revealed that S. mansoni is the most prevalence(52%) among older

teenagers , S. stercoralis shows (44%) in the five to nine-year old group(54) .

1.6.1. Pathogenesis:

Neuroschistosomiasis (NS) occurs when ova and or adult worms reach

the central nervous system (CNS). Two mechanisms have been postulated

29

for this process: the ova are carried to the CNS through arterial or retrograde

venous blood flow via the valveless perivertebral plexus of Batson, being

deposited anywhere along the path of the blood flow, or the ova are

deposited in situ after the anomalous migration of adult worms(55).

NS can be present in the early stages of the infection, while the patient

is still asymptomatic, during the slow and gradual evolution of the disease to

its chronic forms, or concomitantly with the chronic intestinal

hepatointestinal or hepatosplenic forms (56). In the early post infective stage

especially in non-immune subjects, neurological symptoms may

occasionally appear in the Katayama syndrome which is attributed to an

immunological reaction to cercariae or schistosomula or ova (57).

The granulomatous reaction of the host to the presence of the ova is the

major immune response to the antigens released from the ova and is at a

maximum intensity in the early stages of infection, leading to the formation

of necrotic-exudative granulomas and the immune response declines over

the course of the infection (58).

1.6.2. Clinical syndromes:

The asymptomatic form of NS is more common than the

symptomatic ones (59).

Clinical manifestations of cerebral NS include seizures associated

30

with an increase in intra-cranial pressure and focal CNS signs, depending on

the site of the cerebral lesion, caused by the masses produced by the

granulomas(60). Headache, papilloedema, visual abnormalities, speech

disturbances, nystagmus and ataxia are common manifestations (59). Duration

of the symptoms varies from a few weeks to more than one year (61).

Different form of presentation: acute encephalitis or encephalomyelitis

together with or immediately after the systemic manifestations of the acute

phase, which include fever, headache, malaise, anorexia, coughing, skin

rash, diarrhoea and abdominal pain (Katayama syndrome)(59); patients may

become confused, develop focal or generalized seizures or become stupors

and visual impairment and papilloedema may occur; signs of

encephalopathy such as hemiplegia and opisthotonus with extensor plantar

responses or evidence of myelopathy such as ataxia, weakness of the legs,

paraesthesiae, sensory loss and sphincter disturbances may also occur(62).

1.6.3. Diagnosis:

CSF in NS, which includes lymphomononuclear hypercellularity

associated with the presence of eosinophils, an increase in protein

concentration, and the presence of antibodies to S. mansoni.

Habeebulla&Ross have recently reported a case of NS presenting with

eosinophilic meningitis (63).

31

Serologic techniques have been used but none have yet achieved

sufficient levels of sensitivity and specificity to justify their consideration as

gold standard techniques (64).

CT/MRI findings of cerebral schistosomiais have been described as single

or multiple hyperdense lesions with variable enhancement surrounded by

low-density oedema with an associated mass effect(65), that is a punctuate

enhancement and a heterogeneous internal structure which correlates with a

moderately large granuloma due to the presence of a collection of eggs(66).

Definitive diagnosis of NS is based on the demonstration of eggs and or

adult worms in the CNS tissue (67).

1.7. Arachnoid cysts :

Arachnoid cysts are non-tumorous intra-arachnoid fluid collections

that account for about 1% of all intracranial space-occupying lesions (68).

They may develop throughout the cerebrospinal axis, with a predominance

in the sylvian region (69). Because of their benign nature and slow expansion

arachnoid cysts may remain a symptomatic or produce only subtle

symptoms and signs, sometimes give rise to focal neurological deficits,

raised intracranial pressure, and/or epileptic seizures.

The arachnoid cyst wall is histologically indistinguishable from normal

32

arachnoid membrane, moderate thickening of the arachnoid and increase in

connective tissue is common (70).

In about 15% of middle fossa arachnoid cysts, an asymptomatic lesion

may become symptomatic as a result of bleeding in association of the cyst

and raised intracranial pressure. Treatment is by cystoperitoneal shunt after

evacuation (71).

1.8. Dermoid and epidermoid cysts: Dermoid and epidermoid cysts are rare space-occupying lesions of the

central nervous system. Although characterized by a slow growth rate, they

are often associated with serious complications. Surgery is the only effective

treatment, and radical resection of the entire cyst, whenever possible

generally succeeds in achieving a cure (72). In dermoid cysts occurring during

adulthood, symptoms and signs more clearly indicate a dysfunction of the

posterior fossa. It is particularly important to establish the presence and type

of communication of cysts with the CSF pathways. Although infratentorial

cysts often communicate, they can be space-occupying masses because of

increasing CSF retention, which may be due to a ball-valve mechanism or to

inadequate communication. The frequently associated hydrocephalus, can be

due to mechanical factors (73).

33

1.9. Toxoplasmosis:

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoon that commonly affects mammals

and birds throughout the world. Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans is

usually asymptomatic.

1.9.1. Epidemiology:

The major mode of transmission of Toxoplasma gondii infection

among infants and young children is congenital. The incidence of congenital

toxoplasmosis in the United States is an estimated one case per 1,000--

12,000 live-born infants (74) and is believed to have decreased substantially

during the preceding 20 years. Older children, adolescents, and adults

typically acquire Toxoplasma infection by eating poorly cooked meat that

contains parasitic cysts or by ingesting sporulated oocysts in soil or

contaminated food or water.

1.9.2. Clinical Manifestations:

In studies of non immunocompromised infants with congenital

toxoplasmosis, the majority of infants (70%-90%) are asymptomatic at birth;

however, the majority of asymptomatic children develop late sequelae (e.g.,

retinitis, visual impairment, and intellectual or neurologic impairment) with

the interval until the onset of their symptoms ranging from several months to

years. Symptoms can include maculopapular rash, generalized

34

lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly, jaundice, hematologic

abnormalities including anemia, thrombocytopenia and neutropenia, and

substantial CNS disease, including hydrocephalus, intracerebral

calcification, microcephaly, chorioretinitis, and seizures(75).

1.9.3. Diagnosis:

Serologic testing is the major method of diagnosis, isolation of

organisms, and PCR.

A presumptive diagnosis of CNS toxoplasmosis is based on clinical

symptoms, serologic evidence of infection, and the presence of a space-

occupying lesion on imaging studies of the brain. Cases of Toxoplasma

encephalitis have been reported in persons without Toxoplasma-specific IgG

antibodies; therefore, negative serology does not exclude that diagnosis.

Computerized tomography of the brain might indicate multiple, bilateral

ring-enhancing lesions in CNS toxoplasmosis, especially in the basal ganglia

and cerebral corticomedullary junction (76). Magnetic resonance imaging is

more sensitive and will confirm basal ganglia lesions in the majority of

patients. F-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose-positive emission tomography can be

helpful in distinguishing toxoplasma abscesses from primary CNS

lymphoma, but the accuracy is not high and this test is not widely

available(77) .

35

1.10. Hydatid disease: Hydatid disease is caused by larvae of cestodes of the genus

Echinococcus, the adult of which is found in carnivores, which are the

definitive hosts. The intermediate hosts are infected by swallowing eggs

passed in the faeces of the definitive host. Two main forms of hydatid

disease occur in man (78).

1.10.1. Geographical distribution:

The most extensive and endemic areas of human infection are found in

the sheep raising countries; South Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, parts

of North, South and East Africa the southern half of the south America. In

addition human infection is frequently found in south-west states of the

USA, Southern and Eastern Europe, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Turkey,

Mongolia, Turkistan, North China, Southern Japan and North Vietnam(79).

1.10.2. Incidence:

Amongst 1802 patient in Australian hydatid register, hydatid disease of

the brain was found in 1 %( 80). According to another source it occurs in 2%

of patients with hydatid disease (12). In reported series of hydatidosis, the

chance of brain hydatid cyst has been between 1 to 3% (81), and it comprises

about 0.02-2% of space occupying lesions of the brain (82). The human brain

36

can be involved primarily via the haematogenous route or by metastatic

spread when a cyst ruptures in the heart or lung. The majority of the hydatid

cysts in the brain are single (83). About 50-75% of intracranial hydatid cysts

are seen in children (84). This high incidence in children is probably related to

patent ductus arteriosus(85). Most cysts are supratentorial(87). Infratentorial

HC is very rare (86). The other less common sites reported are skull

cavernous sinus eyeball, pons, extradural, cerebellum and ventricles(87).

The hydatid cyst has a wall composed of two layers: an inner layer of

germinal epithelium (endocyst), and an outer layer of laminated hyaline

membrane (ectocyst), the ectocyst is striated and nonnucleated, and the

endocyst is granular, nucleated, and friable. In most parts of the body, the

host reacts to the presence of this alien organism by enveloping it in a

fibroblastic capsule (adventitial membrane), but in the brain this membrane

hardly develops (88). The fluid in the cyst is colourless and has a low specific

gravity (1005-1015). The albumin content is 2 to 2.5 g/L, the glucose

content is 0.30 to 0.50 g/L, and the chloride content is 6.49 g/L. Some

lymphocytes, scolices, and hooks are also present in each milliliter of the

fluid (89).

37

1.10.3. Clinical Features:

Generally are those of space occupying lesion and hydatid

involvement of the brain is marked by slow mass effect, hydrocephalus and

often seizures, occasionally metastatic lesions in the brain are the first to

cause symptoms by local inflammation or mass effect(90).

1.10.4. Diagnosis:

Thirty percent may show eosinophilia. Confirmatory evidence of

infection may be obtained by serology.

The appearances of hydatid cysts in CT scan are cystic, spherical with a

sharp border, a central absorptive value similar to CSF, and no perifocal

oedema and usually with significant ventricular distortion and a shift of

midline structures. There is lack of enhancement and of the perifocal

oedema seen in cystic tumours(90) .

1.11. Mycetoma:

Mycetoma is a chronic, localized subcutaneous infection

characterized by draining sinus tracts, that containing granule. The disease

most often affects the lower extremities with the majority of cases involving

the foot. The organisms are usually introduced by a thorn. Rare sites such as

38

eye lids, testis, mandible, paranasal sinus, head and neck and spine has also

been described. Neurological deficits are quite rare and less well

described(16).

In the study conducted by Arbab, Idris, Sokrab et al, in nine cases

comprising seven males and two females, they mentioned that the

commonest causative organism was streptomyces somaliensis(66.7%).Males

were affected more often than females(22.2%) and the source of infection

was unknown in the majority of cases and only known in (33.3%)of cases.

The most common mode of presentation was headache and scalp swelling

(88.9%) the next common presentation was epilepsy (55.6%).Other focal

neurological disorders such as hemiplegia and cranial nerve affection were

also found. CT findings of the cranium showed osteosclerotic rather than

osteolytic changes. They concluded that mycetoma of the cranium may

present with various neurological disorders and may stimulate cerebral

neoplasm or psudotumour cerebri(91).

1.12. Aneurysms and arteriovenous malformations:

Aneurysm: Is widening of a vessel involving the stretching of fibrous

tissue within the media of the vessel (16).These can be classified

39

morphologically into saccular, fusiform or mycotic. The pathogenesis of

saccular aneurysms reflects a combination of congenital, acquired and

hereditary factors. A modest increase in incidence of familial saccular

aneurysms as well as their association with polycystic kidney disease, Ehler

Danlos Syndrome and other connective tissue disorders implicate hereditary

factors(16).

Fusiform aneurysms: spindle shape dilatation and elongation that

occur in large arteries, most frequently in the basilar artery, which can

compress cranial nerves v, vii, viii causing facial pain hemifacial spasm and

hearing loss with vertigo respectively. Fusiform aneurysms may imitate the

features of CPA angle tumours, or they mimic pituitary and suprasellar mass

lesions.

Mycotic Aneurysms: Caused by septic degeneration of arterial wall

muscle and elastic tissue .They form in distal cerebral arteries at the point

where small septic cardiogenic emboli lodge. They are frequently multiple

and can be found in anterior or posterior cerebral circulation

1.12.1. Clinical Features:

A part from those related to subarachnoid haemorrhage due to rupture

of aneurysm, it may present with features of space occupying lesion.

Bien SM,Thorn K and Hassler W , mentioned that CT diagnosis of

40

cerebral aneurysm is possible. In nonthrombosed giant aneurysm, CT shows

a homogenous, primarily hyperdense space occupying lesion with

enhancement. The partially thrombosed giant aneurysms appear hyperdense

with hypodense or isodense portion in the plain CT scan .CT scan diagnosis

is possible in every case of partially or non thrombosed aneurysm ,but

cerebral angiography remains the definitive study to detect the lesion(92) .

1.12.2. Vascular malformation:

Venous angioma: The most common type, usually lie close to the surface of

the brain, seldom produce seizures or headache.

Acerebral varix: is a single dilated vein and very rarely causes clinical

symptoms.

Telangectasia: Are common, they are usually located deep in the brain and

rarely produce symptoms. Because of their location, haemorrhage from

small vessels can occasionally be fetal.

Cavernous angiomas: Are large sinusoidalchannels which can be

thrombosed. They are readily detected by CT scan and rarely bleed, but they

may cause headache and seizures (16).

Arteriovenous malformation: The most common symptomatic vascular

anomaly. Familial causes are rare, indicating that the problem reflects

sporadic abnormalities in embryologic development.

41

1.12.3. Diagnosis:

By CT scan and MRI. Angiography remains the definitive test to

identify the AVM and delineate its feeding arteries and draining veins (16).

42

JUSTIFICATIONS

• Intracranial SOLs is a serious problem in any children.

• Early detection of symptoms and signs of intracranial SOLs can

give better chance for treatment.

• No similar study was done in children in Sudan.

43

OBJECTIVES

The study aims to study the:

1. clinical presentations of intracranial SOLs.

2. causes of intracranial SOLs in children.

3. imaging findings associated with intracranial SOLs.

44

Chapter Two

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Study design:

It is a combined cross sectional and prospective hospital based study.

2.2. Study Area:

The study was conducted in Elshaab Teaching Hospital(National Center For

Neurological Sciences),Khartoum Teaching Hospital and Dr Gafaar Ibn Auf

Children's Hospital.

2.3. Study Duration:

The study was done during the period from 1st September 2005 to end

of February 2007.

2.4. Study Population and Sampling Technique:

2.4.1. Study Population:

The study population included 103 children less than 18 years of age, 63

males and 40 were females.

2.4.2. Sampling technique:

The sample is an inclusive sample with no selection. All children who

diagnosed as having intracranial SOLs after confirmation by brain CT scan

or MRI admitted or seen in referral clinics in Elshaab Teaching Hospital

45

(National Center For Neurological Sciences) in Mondays and Thursdays ,or

admitted in the selected hospitals during the study period were included .

2.5. Inclusion criteria:

All children presenting with intracranial SOLs below 18 years old and

new cases in the selected hospitals.

2.6. Exclusion criteria:

• Refusal to give consent for inclusion in the study by the parents or

caretakers.

• Patients with intracranial haemorrhage and or subdural haematoma

were not included (because most of these cases are due to trauma).

2.7. Methods

2.7.1. Study Tools and Technique:

a: Questionnaire:

A standardized questionnaire was used to obtain information concerning

personal history of the child, detailed history about the presenting

complaint, symptoms of raised intracranial pressure, mental symptoms such

as coma, sensory and motor symptoms, symptoms related to the cranial

nerves. Past medical history of chronic cough, trauma to the head,

schistosomaisis and epilepsy, family history and socioeconomic information.

46

b: Clinical examination:

Every child was subjected to a thorough clinical examination

including a general check up for pallor,cyanosis, jaundice; chest was

examined for evidence of congenital heart disease, also abdominal

examination for organomegaly, generalized lymphadenopathy and proper

C.N.S examination including fundoscopy, some difficult cases were reffered

to the ophthalmologist.

All children had anthropometric measurements including skull

circumference, height and weight.

2.7.2. Investigations:

Routine investigations:

CBC, ESR, urea and electrolytes, x-ray of the skull ,x-rays of other

parts of the body are ordered if secondaries were suspected.

Investigations essential for diagnosis of intracranial SOL:

All patients had an MRI or brain CT scan to confirm the presence of

SOL.

Specific investigations:

Mantoux test, sputum for AAFB, chest x-ray, abdominal U/S and

47

pituitary hormones were done in selected patients.

Other investigations:

Biopsy- histological confirmation of the lesion was obtained in those

who had access to surgery.

2.8. Data Analysis:

The questionnaire was pre-coded, and a master sheet was constructed

to arrange the raw data. Tables were drawn and descriptive statistics were

measured.

Data was entered into SPSS (statistical package for social science)

computerized program for analysis, and Chi-square test was then used to 5%

confidence level (P value≤0.05).

2.9. Ethical Issues:

-Permission was obtain from the relevant hospitals administrations.

-Verbal consent was taken from the child, his parents or caretakers.

2.10. Research Team:

• The author, who performed the clinical examination, fulfilled the

questionnaire and helped some patients to perform unaffordable

investigations like brain CTscan and MRI.

48

• Ophthalmologist who performed fundus examination for the

difficult cases.

• Lab technician

49

Chapter Three

3. RESULTS

3.1. Demographic characteristic of children in the study

population:

3.1.1. Sex Distribution:

The study included 103 patients; Males were 63 and females were 40

patients. Male to female ratio was 1.7: 1. (Figure 1)

3.1.2. Age Distribution:

Thirty five patients (34%) were less than 5 years of age, 32 (31%)

patients were 5-10 years and 36 (35%) patients were more than 10 years.

(Figure 2)

3.2. Pattern of presentation:

Figure 3 shows that the commonest presenting symptoms were

headache in 61 (59.2%) patients, seizures in 51 (49.5%) patients, vomiting in

48 (46.6%) patients and motor weakness in 40 patients (38.8%). The least

presenting symptoms were paraesthesias in 2 (1.9%) patients, sensory loss

in 1(1.0%) patient and dysphagia in 1(1.0%) patient.

50

Figure1:The distribution of gender for the study population

n=103

Male61%

Female39%

51

Figure2:The disrtibution of age for the study population

n=103

5-10 yr31%

<5yr34%

>10yr35%

52

Figure 3: The presenting symptoms in the sudy population n=103

59.2

49.5 46.638.8

31.1 29.121 18.4

14.6

2.9 1.9 1 15.86.87.8 5.8

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

head

ache

seizu

res

vomitin

g

motor w

eakne

ss

unste

adines

s

visua

l impa

irmen

t

increas

e size

of he

ad

gait d

isturb

ance

loss o

f con

sciou

snes

s

incon

tinen

ce

speec

h dist

urbance

devia

tion o

f mou

th

mental s

ympto

ms

deafn

ess

parae

sthes

ias

senso

ry los

s

dysp

hagia

Symptoms

Perc

enta

ge

53

3.3. Clinical examination:

Figure 4 shows that abnormal gait was detected in 44 (42.7%) patients.

Cranial nerves involvement in 45 (43.7%) patients. The commonest

affected cranial nerve was the optic cranial nerve; this was occurred in 18

(17.5%) patients mainly with astrocytoma in 11 (61.1%) patients.

(Table 1)

Fundus examination was abnormal in 32 (31.1%) patients ;( optic

atrophy in 9 (8.7%) patients, papilloedema in 19 (18.5%) patients and both

optic atrophy and papilloedema in 4 (3.9%) patients and difficult to assess in

10 (9.7%) patient. (Table 2)

3.4. Sites of lesions:

All patients had brain MRI or brain CT scan, the supratentorial lesions

were found in 75 (72.8%) patients and infratentorial lesions were found in

28 (27.2%) patients. (Figure 5)

3.4.1. Sites of lesions in relation to sex:

Table 3 shows that supratentorial lesions occurred in 50 (66.7%) males

compared to 25 (33.3%) females. The rest of patients lesions were in

infratentorial area.

54

42.7 43.7

31.1

23.3

26.2 27.2

16.5

10.7

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Percentage

abnormal gait cranial nerveslesions

abnormalfundus

pallor wasting hyperreflexia hypotonia hypertonia

Clinical sign

Figure 4: The clinical signs in patients in the study populationn=103

55

Table 1: Individual cranial nerves involvement in children with intracranial SOLs in the study population

n=103

Lesion Cranial Nerves

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th

Asrtocytoma 11 1 1

Abscess 2 2 6

Medulloblastoma 1 1 1

Others 1 4 4 1 3 2 1 1 1

Total 1 18 8 1 10 3 1 1 1

Table 2: Fundal changes in children with intracranial SOLs in the

study population n=103

Funal change Number Percentage

Papilloedema 19 18.5

Optic atrophy 9 8.7

Optic & papilloedema 4 3.9

Normal 61 59.2

Difficult to assess 10 9.7

Total 103 100.0

56

Figure 5: Supratentorial and infratentorial classification for the lesions in the study population

n=103

supratentorial73%

infratentorial27%

57

Tabe 3: Sites of lesions (supratentorial and infratentorail) in relation to sex in the study population

n=103

Supratentorial Infratentorial Total Gender

No % No % No %

Male 50 66.7 13 46.4 63 61.2

Female 25 33.3 15 53.6 40 38.8

Total 75 100.0 28 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.06

58

The commonest site of the lesion was the whole cerebellum in

11(10.7%) patients, the right cerebellum in 6 (5.8%) patients and in the left

cerebellum is one (1.0%) patient .The lesion was detected in the occipital

lobe in 9 (8.7%) patients. The least sites affected were occipito temporal

lobes in one (1%) patient and occipito cerebellar area in one patient (1.0%).

(Figure 6)

3.4.2. Sites of lesions in relation to age group:

The commonest site for all age group was the supratentorial area. <5 years

28 (37.3%) patients , 5-10 years 23 (30.7%) patients and > 10 years in 24

(32.0%) patients , this result was statistically insignificant (p=0.4). (Table 4)

3.4. Sites of lesions in relation to the commonest symptoms and

signs:

3.4.3.1. Headache:

Table (5) shows that headache was a common symptom with the

infratentorial lesions detected in 21(75.0%) patients compared to 40 (53.3%)

patients with supratentorial lesion, this result was statistically significant

(p=0.04).

59

Figure 6: Sites for lesions in the study population n=103

10.7

5.8

1

8.7

1

8.7

4.9 3.9 3.9

47.5

3.9

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

whole

cereb

ellum

right

cereb

ellum

left c

erebe

llum

occip

ital

occip

itotem

poral

occip

itoce

rebell

ar

right

parie

tal

left p

arieta

l

supra

sella

r

tempro

parie

tal

others

Sites

Perc

enta

ge

60

Tabe 4: Sites of lesions (supratentorial and infratentorail) in relation to age in the study population

n=103

Supratentoria Infratentorial Total Gender

No % No % No %

<5 yr 28 37.3 7 25.0 35 34.0

5-10 yr 23 30.7 9 32.1 32 31.1

>10 yr 24 32.0 12 42.9 36 35.0

Total 75 100.0 28 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.4

Table 5: Headache in relation to sites of lesions in the study population

n=103 Supratentoria Infratentorial Total Headache

No % No % No %

Present 40 53.3 21 75.0 61 59.2

Absent 35 46.7 7 25.0 42 40.8

Total 75 100.0 28 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.04

61

3.4.3.2. Vomiting:

No significant difference in the symptom of vomiting in relation to the

site (p=0.6). (Table 6)

3.4.3.3. Seizures:

Forty four (58.7%) patients with supratentorial lesions and 7 (25.0%)

patients with infratentorial lesions presented with seizures, this relation with

the sites was statistically significant (p=0.002). (Table 7)

3.4.3.4. Motor weakness:

Twenty six (34.7%) patients from the supratenorial area and 14 (50.0%)

patients from infratentorial area, presented with motor weakness, the result

was statistically significant (p=0.00). (Table 8)

3.4.3.5. Gait disturbance:

Gait disturbance was found to be more common with the infratentorial

lesions than supratentorial lesions, 10 (35.7%) patients compared to 9

(12.0%) patients presented with gait disturbance, this relation was

statistically significant (p=0.006). (Table 9)

3.4.3.6. Fundal changes:

Papilloedema was the commonest lesion, found mainly in the

supratentorial lesions in 12 (63.2%) patients compared to 7 (36.8%) patients

62

Table 6: Vomiting in relation to sites of lesions in the study population

n=103

Supratentoria Infratentorial Total Vomiting

No % No % No %

Present 36 48.0 12 42.9 48 46.6

Absent 39 52.0 16 57.1 55 53.4

Total 75 100.0 28 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.6

Table 7: Seizures in relation to sites of lesions in the study population

n=103

Supratentoria Infratentorial Total Seizures

No % No % No %

Present 44 58.7 7 25.0 51 49.5

Absent 31 41.3 21 75.0 52 50.5

Total 75 100.0 28 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.002

63

Table 8: Motor weakness in relation to sites of lesions in the study population

n=103

Supratentoria Infratentorial Total Motor

weakness No % No % No %

Present 26 34.7 14 50.0 40 38.8

Absent 49 65.3 14 50.0 63 61.2

Total 75 100.0 28 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.00

Table 9: Gait disturbance in relation to sites of lesions in the study population n=103

Supratentoria Infratentorial Total Gait

No % No % No %

Normal 66 88.0 18 64.3 84 81.6

abnormal 9 12.0 10 35.7 19 18.4

Total 75 100.0 28 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.006

64

with infratentorial lesions, this result was statistically insignificant

(p=0.7).(Table 10)

3.5. Nature of lesions:

The nature of lesions was found to be neoplastic in 65 (63.1%) patients

and non neoplastic in 38(36.9%) patients. (Figure 7)

Malignant lesions (which were the malignant tumours) were 56 (54.4%)

lesions and benign lesions (which were tuberculoma, cysts and benign

tumours) were 47(45.6%) lesions. (Figure 8)

The commonest histological lesions were astrocytoma in 36 (35.0%)

patients, followed by brain abscess in 20 (19.4%) patients and

Medulloblastoma was detected in 11 (10.7%) patients.

Tuberculoma was detected, in 2 (1.9%) patients only. The least lesions

were found are Adenoma in 1 (1.0%) patient , germ cell papilloma in one

(1.0%) patient and epidermoid cyst in 1 (1.0%) patient . (Figure 9)

3.5.1. Types of lesions (benign and malignant) in relation to

Sex:

The malignant lesions commonly affected males 34 (60.7%)

patients compared to 22 (39.3%) females, the result was statistically in

significant (p=0.9) .Table(11)

65

Table 10: Fundal changes in relation to sites of lesions in the study population

n=103

Supratentoria Infratentorial Total Fundal

finding No % No % No %

Normal 47 77.0 14 23.0 61 100.0

Atrophy 6 66.7 3 33.3 9 100.0

Papilloedema 12 63.2 7 36.8 19 100.0

Atrophy &

papilloedema

3

75.0 1 2.0 4 100.0

Difficult to

assess

7 70.0 3 30.0 10 100.0

Total 75 72.8 28 27.2 103 100.0

P=0.7

66

Figure 7: Natures of the lesions in the study population

n=103

neoplastic63%

non neoplastic37%

67

Figure 8: Classification of the lesions into benign and malignant in the study population

n=103

malignant54%

benign46%

68

Figure 9:Histological types of lesions in the study population n=103

35

19.4

10.76.8 4.9 4.9

1.9 1.9 1.9 1 1 1 11.93.92.90

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

astro

cytoma

absc

ess

medull

oblas

toma

arach

noid cy

st

cranio

phary

ngiom

a

derm

iod cy

st

mening

ioma

epind

ymom

a

tuberc

uloma

hyda

tidgli

oma

papil

loma

aden

oma

germ

papillo

ma

oligo

dend

rogliom

a

epide

rmoid

Histological type

Perc

enta

ge

69

Table 11: Types of lesions in relation to sex in the study population

n=103

Benign Malignant Total Type

No % No % No %

Male 29 61.7 34 60.7 63 61.2

Female 18 38.3 22 39.3 40 38.8

Total 47 100.0 56 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.9

70

3.5.2. Types of lesions (benign and malignant) in relation to age

Group:

Table 12 shows that the benign lesions were common among children <

5 years 24 patients (51.1%), the malignant conditions were more common

among children >10 years (42.9%),thiswas statistically significant(p=0.004).

3.5.3. Types of lesions in relation to sites:

Table 13 shows that supratentorial lesions were benign in 41(54.7%)

patients while infratentorial lesions were malignant in 22 (78.6%) patients,

this relation was statistically significant (p=0.003).

3.5.4. Types of lesions in relation to presenting symptoms:

3.5.4.1. Headache:

Table 14 shows that headache was detected in 42 (75.0%) patients with

malignant lesions compared to 19 patients (40.0%) with benign lesions, this

relation was statistically significant (p=0.00).

3.5.4.2. Vomiting:

Vomiting was a presenting symptom in 23 (48.9%) patients with benign

lesions compared to 25 (44.6%) patients with malignant lesions; this result

was not significant statistically. (Table15)

71

Table 12: Types of lesions (benign and malignant) in relation to age in the study population

n=103

Supratentoria Infratentorial Total Age

group No % No % No %

<5 yr 24 51.1 11 14.6 35 34.0

5-10 yr 11 23.4 21 37.5 32 31.0

>10 yr 12 25.5 24 42.9 36 35.0

Total 47 100.0 56 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.004

72

Table 13: Types of lesions in relation to sites in the study population

n=103

Supratentoria Infratentorial Total Type of

lesion No % No % No %

Benign 41 54.7 6 21.4 47 45.6

Malignant 34 45.3 22 78.6 56 54.4

Total 75 100.0 28 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.003

Table 14: Headache in relation to types of lesions in the study population

n=103

Benign Malignant Total Headache

No % No % No %

Present 19 40.4 42 75.0 61 59.2

Absent 28 59.6 14 25.0 42 40.8

Total 47 100.0 56 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.00

73

Table 15: Vomiting in relation to types of lesions in the study population

n=103

Benign Malignant Total Vomiting

No % No % No %

Present 23 48.9 25 44.6 48 46.6

Absent 24 51.1 31 55.4 55 53.4

Total 47 100.0 56 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.6

74

3.5.4.3. Seizures:

Seizures were detected in 31(66.0%) patients with benign lesions and in

20 (35.7%) patients with malignant lesions, this was statistically significant

(p=0.002). (Table16)

3.5.4.4. Motor weakness:

Table 17 shows that 25 (44.6%) patients with malignant lesions

presented with motor weakness compared to 15 (31.9%) patients with

benign lesions presented with motor weakness, the result was statistically

insignificant (p=0.18).

3.5.4.5. Gait disturbance:

Table 18 shows that 7 (14.9%) patients with benign lesions presented

with abnormal gait compared to 12 (21.4%) patients with malignant lesions,

this was insignificant statistically (p=0.4).

3.5.4.6. Fundal changes:

Papilloedema was the commonest finding in fundus examination, found

mainly in the malignant lesions in 11 (57.9%) patients compared to 8

(42.1%) patients with benign lesions, this was statistically insignificant

(p=0.06). (Table19)

75

Table 16: Seizures in relation to types of lesions in the study population

n=103

Benign Malignant Total Seizures

No % No % No %

Present 31 66.0 20 35.7 51 49.5

Absent 16 34.0 36 64.3 52 50.5

Total 47 100.0 56 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.002

Table 17: Motor weakness in relation to types of lesions in the study population

n=103 Benign Malignant Total Motor

weakness No % No % No %

Present 15 31.9 25 44.6 40 38.8

Absent 32 68.1 31 55.4 63 61.2

Total 47 100.0 56 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.18

76

Table 18: Gait disturbance in relation to types of lesions in the study population

n=103

Benign Malignant Total

Gait No % No % No %

Normal 40 85.1 44 78.6 84 81.6

Abnormal 7 14.9 12 21.4 19 18.4

Total 47 100.0 56 100.0 103 100.0

P=0.4

77

Table 19: Fundal changes in relation to types of lesions in the study population

n=103

Benign Malignant Total Fundal

finding No % No % No %

Normal 28 45.9 33 54.1 61 100.0

Atrophy 3 33.3 6 66.7 9 100.0

papilloedema 8 42.1 11 57.9 19 100.0

Atrophy and

papilloedema

0 0 4 100.0 4 100.0

Difficult to

assess

8 80.0 2 20.0 10 100.0

Total 47 45.6 56 54.4 103 100.0

P=0.06

78

3.6. Imaging findings: (Figure 10):

The commonest imaging finding were ventricular dilatation in 45

(43.7%) patients, shifting of the midline in 28 (26.0%) patients and oedema

in 26 (25.2%) patients, ring enhancement in 19 (18.4%) patients.

Calcification was found in only 4 (3.9%) patients.

3.6.1. The commonest imaging findings in relations to sites of

lesions :( Table 20)

• Ventricular dilatation:

Ventricular dilatation was detected in 35(46.7%) patients with

supratentorial lesions compared to 13 (46.4%) patients with infratentorial

lesions, this was statistically insignificant (p=0.9).

• Shifting of the midline:

shows that midline shift was detected in 22 (29.3%) patients with

supratentorial lesions compared to 4 (14.3%) patients with infratentorial

lesions, this result was statistically insignificant (p=0.1).

• Oedema:

Oedma was detected in 19 (25.3%) patients with supratenorial lesions

and in 7 (25.0%) patients with infratentorial lesions, the result was

insignificant statistically (p=0.9).

79

43.7

26

18.4 18.4

13.611.7

28.2

3.9

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

percentage

ventriculardilatation

midline shift oedema ringenhancement

hypodense hyperdense mixed calcification

imaging findings

Figure10: Imaging findings of patients in the study population n=103

80

Table 20: The commonest imaging findings in relation to sites of lesions in the study population

n=103

Supratentorial

Infratentorial Total of the study

Present Absent Present Absent Total of present

Total of absent

Total

Imaging findings

No % No % No % No % No % No % No %

Ventricular dilatation

35 46.7 40 53.3 13 46.4 15 53.6 48 46.6 55 53.4 103 100

Midline shift

22 29.3 53 70.7 4 14.3 24 85.7 26 25.2 77 74.8 103 100

Oedema

19 25.3 56 74.7 7 25.0 21 75.0 26 25.2 77 74.8 103 100

81

3.6.2. The commonest imaging findings in relations to types of

lesions: (Table 21)

• Ventricular dilatation:

Ventricular dilatation was detected in 19 (40.4%) patients with benign

lesions compared to 26 (46.4%) patients with malignant lesions, this result

was statistically insignificant (p=0.5).

• Shifting of the midline:

Midline shift was detected in 16 patients (34.0%) with benign lesions

compared to 10 patients (14.3%) with malignant lesions, this result was

statistically insignificant (p=0.06).

• Oedema:

Oedma was detected in 13 patients (27.7) with benign lesions

compared to 13 patients (23.2%) with malignant lesions, this result was

statistically insignificant (p=0.6).

3.7. Types lesions in relation to the operative treatment:

Seventeen (85.0%) patients with benign lesions were operated while

only 11(36.7%) patients with malignant lesions were operated, this result

was statistically insignificant (p=0.6).

82

Table 21: The commonest imaging findings in relation to types of lesions (benign and malignant) in the study population

n= 103 Supratentorial

Infratentorial Total of the study

Present Absent Present Absent Total of present

Total of absent

Total

Imaging findings

No % No % No % No % No % No % No %

Ventricular dilatation

19

40.4

28

59.6

26

46.4

30

53.6

45

43.7

58

56.3

103

100

Midline shift

16

34.0

31

66.0

10

17.9

46

82.1

26

25.2

77

74.8

103

100

Oedema

13

27.7

34

72.3

13

23.2

43

76.8

26

25.2

77

74.8

103

100

83

3.8. Types of lesions in relation to the Shunt operation:

Table 22 shows that 21 (65.6%) patients with malignant lesions had

ventriculoperitoneal shunt, compared to only 7(35.0%) patients with benign

lesions had the shunt operation, this difference was statistically significant

(p=0.03).

3.9. Commonest Detected Lesions:

3.9.1. Astrocytoma:

Astrocytoma was the commonest malignant condition detected

in 36 (35.0%) children .

3.9.1.1. Age and sex distribution:

There were 5 children (13.9%) <5 years, 10 children were 5-10 years

(27.8%) and 21 children (58.3%) were > 10 years.

Males were 19 patients (52.8%) and females were 17 patients (47.2%).

3.9.1.2. Clinical presentation: (Figure 11)

The commonest presentation were headache in 27 (75.0%) patients,

visual impairment in 19 (52.8%) patients and unsteadiness was found in 18

(50.0%) patients.

84

Table 22: The relation between types of lesions and the V.P shunt operation in the study population n=52

Benign Malignant Total Shunt

operation No % No % No %

present 7 35.0 21 65.6 28 53.8

Absent 13 65.0 11 34.4 24 46.2

Total 20 100.0 32 100.0 52 100.0

P=0.03

85

75

30.6 30.6

16.7

50

36.1

52.8

19.4

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Percentage

headache vomiting seizures fever unsteadiness motorweakness

visualimpairment

gait disturbance

Symptoms

Figure11:The presenting symptoms of patients with Astrocytoma

n=36

86

3.9.1.3. Clinical examination: (Figure 12)

The commonest clinical finding was hyporeflexia in 13 (36.1%)

patients, abnormal gait (mainly ataxia) in 12 (33.3%) patients and cranial

nerve involvement was detected in 12 (33.3%) patients.

Fundus examination revealed that 8 (22.2%) patients had optic atrophy, 8

(22.2%) patients had papilloedema.

3.9.1.4. Imaging findings:

The lesions were detected in supratentorial and infratentorial equally,

18 (50.0%) patients. The commonest site for astrocytoma was the

cerebellum in 17 (47.2%) patients. The commonest lesion found in the

cerebellum was astrocytoma compared to other types of lesions, this result

was statistically significant (p=0.001).The lesion was parietal in 5 (13.9%)

patients, temproparietal in 5(13.9%) patients. (Figure 13)

Shifting of the midline was detected in 8 (22.2%) patients ,oedema was

found in 10 (27.8%) patients .In precontrast study there were 6 (16.7%)

lesions showed hypodense , 5 (13.9%) lesions showed hyperdense and 9

(25.0%) lesions showed mixed nature . Five (13.9%) lesions showed ring of

enhancement. Ventricular dilatation was detected in 16 (44.4%) patients .In

contrast study 13 (36.1%) patients showed mixed feature and 11 (30.6%)

patients showed hypodense lesions.

87

36.1

33.3 33.3

22.2 22.2

13.9

8.4 8.3

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Percentage

hyperreflexia abnormal gait cranial N.lesions

optic atrophy papilloedema hypotonia unable to walk hypertonia

Clinical signs

Figure 12: The clinical signs in patients with Astrocytoma n=36

88

47.2

13.9 13.9

2.8 2.88.3

5.62.8

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Percentage

cerebellum parietal temproparietal supra sellar medulla parietooccipital

frontal 4th ventricle

Site

Figure 13: Sites of Astrocytoma in the study population n=36

89

3.9.2 Abscess:

Abscess was found in 20 patients (19.4%).

3.9.2.1. Age and sex distribution:

There were 9 (45.0%) patients below the age of 5 years , 5 (25.5%)

patients between 5-10 years and 6 (30.0%) patient were above 10 years of

age . They were 13(65.0%) male (65.0%) and 7(35.0%) female.

3.9.2.2. Clinical presentation:

The commonest presenting symptoms were seizures in 16(80.0%)

patients, vomiting in 11(55.0%) patients, fever in 11(55.0%) patients and

headache in 10 patients. (Figure 14)

3.9.2.3. Clinical examination:

Cranial nerves involvements were detected in 5 (25.0%) patients.

Fundal examination detected 6 (30.0%) patients with papilloedema and 2

(10.0%) patients with optic atrophy. (Figure 15)

3.9.2.4. Imaging findings:

The lesions were detected in supratentorial in 18 (90.0%) patients. The

commonest sites were parietal lobes in 9 (45.0%) patients, frontal lobes in 5

(25.0%) patients and temporal lobes in 3 (15.0%) patients. (Figure16)

90

80

5055 55

40

2520

15

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Percentage

seizures headache vomiting fever motorweakness

unsteadiness visualimpairment

gaitdisturbance

Symptoms

Figure 14: The presenting symptoms for patients with Abscess in the study population

n=20

91

25

10

30

85

95

8580

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

percentage

cranial N. lesions optic atrophy papilloedema normal tone normal power normal reflexes normal gait

Clinical signs

Figure 15: Clinical signs in patients with Abcess in the study population

n=20

92

45

25

15

5 5 5

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Percentage

parietal frontal temporal cerebellar lateral ventricle pons

Sites

Figure 16:Sites of Abscess in the study population n=20

93

Midline shift was detected in 6 (30.0%) patients, oedema was detected

in 14(70.0%) patients, this relation was statistically significant (p=0.00).

Ring of enhancement was found in 10(50.0%) patients, the result was

statistically significant (p=0.00).Ventricular dilatation was detected in 9

(45.0%) patients .Contrast enhancement showed hypodense lesions in 6

(50.0%) patients.

3.9.3. Medulloblastoma :

Medulloblastoma was detected in 11(10.7%) patients.

3.9.3.1. Age and sex:

There were 3 (27.3%) children below age of 5 years, 6 (54.5%)

children between 5-10 years and 2 (18.2%) children their age above 10

years.

The males were 9 (81.8%) patients and the females were 2 (18.2%)

patients.

3.9.3.2. Clinical presentation:

The commonest presenting symptoms were vomiting which was

detected in 9 (81.8%) patients, headache in 8 (72.0%) patients and motor

weakness in 7 (63.6%) patients. (Figure 17)

94

72

81.8

54.6

18.2

63.6

36.6

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Percentage

headache vomiting seizures fever motor weakness unsteadiness

Symptoms

Figure 17: The presenting symptoms of patients with Medulloblastoma in the study population

n=11

95

3.9.3.3. Clinical examination:

Cranial nerves involvements were found in 4 (36.4%) patients.

Papilloedema was detected in 2 (18.2%) patients. (Figure 18)

3.9.3.4. Imaging findings:

The lesion was in the cerebellar vermis in 7 (63.6%) patients occipital in

2 (18.2%) and in the 4th ventricle in 2 (18.2%) patients. (Figure 19)

Midline shift and ring of enhancement were not detected in this lesion

while odema was detected in only 1 (9.1%) patient .Ventricular dilatation

was found in 2 (18.2%) patients and contrast enhancement showed mixed

lesions in 4 (66.6%) patients.

3.9.4. Other intracranial space occupying lesions: Table (23)

The commonest presenting symptom in the cystic lesions (arachnoid

cyst and dermoid cyst) was increased the size of the head, in (57.1%) of

arachnoid cyst patients and in (60%) of dermoid cyst patients. This relation

was statistically significant (p=0.04). Cranial nerves lesions were the

commonest findings in most of the lesions. Tuberculomas were detected in

only 2 (1.9%) patients.

96

36.4

18.2

63.7

45.5 45.5 45.5

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Percentage

cranial Ninvolvement

papilloedema normal power nrmal tone normal reflexes abnormal gait

Clinical signs

Figure 18: The clinical signs of patients with Medulloblastoma in the study populatiuon

n=11

97

63.6

18.2 18.2

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Percentage

cerebellar vermis occipital fourth ventricle

Sites

Figure 19: The commonest sites for Medulloblastoma in the study population

n=11

98

Table 23: Other histological types of lesions in intracranial SOLs in the study population

Lesion Age Symptom sign Number percentage

Arachnoid cyst <5 yr Increase head

size

Cranial

nerves lesion

7 6.8

Dermoid cyst <5 yr Increase head

size

Cranial

nerve lesion

5 4.9

Meningioma All age Seizures Cranial

nerves lesion

3 2.9

Epindymoma < 5yr Headache

Vomiting

seizures

Cranial

nerves

lesions

4

3.9

Cranipharyngioma 5-10 Headache

Vomiting

Seizures

Cranial

nerves

lesions

5

4.9

Tuberculoma Headache Motor

weakness

2 1.9

Hydatid cyst Seizures Motor

weakness

2 1.9

papilloma Vomiting Cranial

nerves lesion

2 1.9

Oligodendroglioma 1 1

Epidermoid cyst 1 1

Adenoma 1 1

Germ cell 1 1

99

3.9.5. Other lesions detected:

Congenital heart disease was detected in 5 (4.8%) patients, 2 (1.9%)

patients had central precocious puberty, one (0.9%) patient had dextrocardia,

one (0.9%) patient had mitral valve disease , one (0.9%) patient had

Dandywalker disease and one (0.9%) patient had sickle cell disease ,one

(0.9%) patient had meningomyelocele. (Table 24)

100

Table 24: Other lesions detected with intracranial cranial SOLs in the study population

Lesion Number Percentage

Central precious puberty 2 1.9

Congenital H.D 5 4.8

Dandy walker 1 0.9

Dextrocardia 1 0.9

Mitral valve lesion 1 0.9

Meningiomyelocele 1 0.9

Sicke cell disease 1 0.9

Total 12 11.2

101

Chapter Four

DISCUSSION

The study included 103 children with predominance of males, male to

females ratio was 1.7:1. This is comparable to that reported in literature (1)

and this result is comparable also to the study by Ifran in Karachi who

reported that male : female ratio was 1.6:1(93). This can be explained by the

fact that most of SOLs are predominating in males. Although the age groups

were divided into three groups generally no apparent differences in the

distributions were found, (less than 5 years were 34%, between 5-10 years

were 31% and > 10 years were 35%). So all age groups were affected, this

result may be explained by the fact that many pathologies were included in

the SOLs.

The most common presentations were that of increased intracranial

pressure, this was in agreement with Desai result in India, mentioning that

the commonest presentations were symptoms of increased intracranial

pressure (11). Headache was the commonest presenting symptom (59.2%) but

did not occur in all patients and this goes with literature mentioning that

headache is common but not invariable(16) , this is more than Sanchez result

102

which reported that only 3 (3.2%) children out of 94 children presented with

headache necessitated hospital admission had intracranial space occupying

lesions (94).

The next common presenting symptom was seizures in 51 (49.5%)

patients and it seems to be higher in our study compared to Mustafa result

(29) who found that vomiting was found in (46.6%) and seems to be similar

to that reported in literature(1), however Sanchez in his study mentioned that

vomiting was accompanying symptom in 38.2% (94). Motor weakness was

found in 40 (38.8%) cases, which also was found to be significant. The

presence of fever in 26.2% of patients can be explained by the fact that

abscesses constituting a significant proportion of SOLs in this study19.4%

could be responsible for the fever.

Increased in the size of the head was found in 21% can be explained by

the fact that the study included patients below 2 years of age which were 19

(18.5%) patients , this increase in the size due to opened sutures in those

children.

Abnormal gait was present in (42.7%) and more common with

infratentorial lesions, a possible cause of this result is that the cerebellar

involvement is common in this study so many patients presented with

abnormal gait mainly ataxia. Cranial nerves involvement occurred in

103

(39.8%) and the commonest nerve to be affected is the 2nd followed by the

3rd then 6th table(2) , Wanyoike reported that 20% of his cases were blind at

the time of presentation (6).The commonest finding in the optic fundi was

papilloedema (16.6%),followed by optic atrophy which was present in

(7.8%), compared to Mustafa , who studied intracranial SOLs in adults in

118 patients he found the same order of the lesions(29) .

Supratentorial lesions were more common than infratentorial lesions

this can be explained by the fact that this study included all lesions not only

tumours which are more common infratentorial in children (13). The

cerebellum was the commonest site for tumuors, mainly astrocytoma that in

keeping with literature (3), however Desai mentioned that the commonest site

in the cerebellum was the vermis (11). The next common site is the occipital

region (8.7%). These findings are not comparable to that reported by

Mustafa , that the commonest location was temproparietal(29) , however his

study confined to adults, also Abu Salih and Abdul Rahman reported the

commonest site was frontal(6) , their study was confined to patients with

brain tumours.

Supratentorial lesions were found to be commonly benign in

41(54.7%) children compared to infratentorial lesions which were

commonly malignant in 22 children (78.6%), this may be due to that fact

104

that most of tumours confined to infratentorial area while most of abscess

and cysts confined to supratentorial.

The benign conditions were found to be commonly below 5 years, this

because of increased incidence of the congenital cysts. The malignant

conditions increased with age and common in male more than female, this in

keeping with Hoffman study mentioned that there is increasing incidence of

primary brain tumors over the past few decades. Data for the years 1985

through 1999 were used to determine incidence trends in the broad age

groups 0-19, 20-64, and >or=65 years, he concluded that incidence increased

modestly. When brain lymphomas were excluded, this increase remained

statistically significant, increases that were not specific to any population

subgroup were seen for oligodendrogliomas, ependymomas, meningiomas,

and nerve sheath tumors (95).

Astrocytoma was found to be the commonest intracranial SOL 35% and

it was the most common primary brain tumour. These findings are

comparable to those in literature(3),Ifran in Karachi mentioned that the

commonest lesion in his study was astrocytoma that comprised 32.1% of the

total cases (386 patients) followed by meningioma (13.7%), however Abu

Salih and Abdul Rahman found that meningioma was the commonest brain

tumour(6) .The age group >10 years affected more common (58.3%)

105

followed by age group5-10 years (27.8%) then the age group <5 years

(13.9%), this result can be explained by the fact that there is increase

incidence of brain tumours(96).Males were affected more commonly than

females (52.8%) this is in keep with literature also Mustafa concluded the

same result(29) but in consistent with Wanyoike result mentioning that female

affected more that male (9).

The commonest symptom was headache (75%), in view of different

reports in literature about occurrence of headache in astrocytoma and

gliomas in general , headache in this study seems to be higher than that

reported by Abu Salih and Abdul Rahman(6), but less than that reported by

Mustafa (29) .The next commonest symptoms were vomiting and seizures in

(30.6%) , the result of vomiting was comparable to Mustafa result (32.2%)

but seizures seems to be less than that reported by Mustafa SA (51.6%) (29)

this can be explained by the fact that most of astrosytoma in our study was

confined to the cerebellum not to lobes where there are increase risk of

irritation and so to seizures, this result was not similar to Wanyoike reported

that cerebellar symptoms were the most common mode of presentation

(30%) followed by headaches and vomiting and no seizures this because the

lesions were in the posterior fossa (9).The relationship between head trauma

and astrocytoma statistically insignificant, however many patients related

106

their headache to a history of head trauma. Cranial nerves involvement was

evident in (33.3%) which is less than that reported by Mustafa (41.9) (29), it

was mentioned in literature that Posterior fossa lesions carry a high risk of

obstructive hydrocephalus, cranial nerves palsy and brain stem compression

pituitary and chiasmatic tumors a risk of blindness(97), the commonest

affected cranial nerve in this study was the 2nd Mustafa reported that the

commonest affected cranial nerve was the 7th (29) .Papilloedema and optic

atrophy were equally detected (22.2%) .Ataxia was detected in (33.3%) this

may be due to the fact that most of astrocytoma in our study was in the

cerebellum(30.6%) , these comparable with literature(3) reported that ataxia is

often associated with posterior fossa tumours although sometimes large

tumours can cause no abnormalities in movement , this result is higher than

that reported by Mustafa (12.9%) .

Shifting of the midline in astrocytoma in imaging was detected in

(22.2%), while odema was found in 27.8%. Most of astrocytomas were

mixed lesions in this study (36.1%), some hypodense (30.6%) and this

finding is different from literature mentioned that astrocytoma more

common hypodense lesions (98), Mustafa reported that the commonest

attenuation was hypodense lesions (29),Vaghi mentioned that forty surgically

proved gliomas have been studied by MRI: 21 were low-grade gliomas and

107

19 were anaplastic astrocytomas and glioblastomas. MRI findings were

similar in low-grade and anaplastic astrocytomas, but quite different from

imaging of glioblastomas. Tumoral cyst and areas of necrosis were

recognized on MRI studies and confirmed by surgical findings.

Differentiation between tumour and oedema was difficult (99).

Brain abscess constituted (19.4%) of all intracranial SOLs. It was the

second common SOL. It affected mostly those in the age group<5 years

(45.0%) which can be explained by increase incidence of congenital heart

disease, sickle cell disease and otitis media at these age, followed by those in

age group>10 years (30.0%) then (25.5%) in age group 5-10 years, this

incomparable with literature in which abscess more common in age group 5-

10 years(3). Males were predominantly affected (65.0%), this in keeping with

literature reporting that abscess is 2 to 3 times common in males(13) , this also

in consistent with Mawag result mentioning that males are more affected but

he mentioned that the common cause for brain abscess in his study was

trauma (10).

The commonest symptom were seizures (80.0%) followed by vomiting

and fever in (55.0%) , headache was found in (50%), this is not comparable

to literature stating that headache and fever are the commonest presenting

symptoms (3) , this can be explained by the fact that most of our patients < 5

108

years(45.0%) had increase incidence of congenital heart disease and otitis

media which commonly affect the temporal lobe so cause cortical irritation

which lead to seizures, another explanation is that seizures are more

detectable in young children by mothers than fever. Motor weakness was

found in (40%), unsteadiness in (25%). Cranial nerves involvement were

detected in (25%),this is less than that reported by Mustafa where cranial

nerves involvement in (50%) of his cases(29), the most affected cranial nerve

was the 6th .Papilloedema was detected in (30%) and optic atrophy in

(10%),in Mustafa SA study papilloedema was detected in (33.3%)(29).

Commonly the abscess was located in parietal in (45.0%), frontal in

(25.0%) and temporal in (15.0%), this is comparable with literature which

mentioned that (80.0%) of abscesses were divided between the frontal,

parietal and temporal areas (3).

Hypodense lesion and ring enhancement were found in (50.0%).

Mustafa reported that all abscesses in his study showed hypodense lesion

and all had ring of enhancement (100.0%) (29).

Oedema was detected in (60.0%) of cases which statistically significant

(p=0.00).

Congenital heart diseases was a risk factor in (4.8%) which may added to

the risk factors for brain abscess, Mehnaz A in Pakistan in his study found

109

that cyanotic congenital heart disease was a predisposing factor in 11

children(37%) out of 30 children (100).

Medulloblastoma accounts for (10.7%) of all cases and the second

common brain tumour in the study, it was mentioned that astrocytoma and

medulloblastoma are more common in children than the other types of

tumours(3). The commonest age group between 5-10 years (54.5%) this result

comparable with literature reported that medulloblastoma is the most

prevalent brain tumours in children less than 7 years (3), followed by <5 years

(27.3%) then >10 years (18.2%), it was mentioned in literature that

medulloblastoma uncommon in adults, i.e. 20 years of age(101).

Males were commonly affected (81.8%), and females were

(18.2%),this result comparable with the literature mentioned that males

more commonly affected than females(101), however Wanyoike reported that

Medulloblastoma in his study a predominantly female tumour as opposed to

available literature(9).

Clinical presentation was dominated by raised ICP, thus vomiting was

the commonest presenting symptoms (81.8%), then headache in 72.0% it

was mentioned that no specific symptoms and signs for medulloblastoma

and headache and vomiting was due the hydrocephalus result rather than the

mass it self (101).

110

Cranial nerves involvement was found in (27.3%), the affected

cranial nerves were the 2nd, 3rd and 6th cranial nerve. Papilloedema was

detected in (18.2%).

Medulloblastoma was found to be more commonly infratentorial which

was comparable which literature (101) mentioning that medulloblastoma is a

typically posterior fossa tumour but can metastasize by CSF. The

commonest site was cerebellar vermis in (63.6%), 4th ventricle is the second

common place in (18.2%), literature mentioned that medulloblastoma can

originate from the roof of the 4th ventricle and grows rapidly to fill the 4th

ventricle (3). Contrast enhancement was mixed in (66.6%) this result was

uncomparable with literature mentioning that the common appearance is the

hyperdense a feature that can differentiate it from from astrocytoma (101)

however Mueller mentioned that medulloblastoma can have a typical

features included cyst formation in (77%) of his cases who were 13 patients

and mixed enhancement in (14%) (95).

Arachnoid cyst accounted for (6.8%) of all cases, this was higher than

that reported in literature which reported only (1%) of all SOLs (70) and

higher than Mustafa result where reported (2.5%) of al intracranial SOLs.

The commonest age group was below 5years (85.7%), this was comparable

with literature and this due to the fact that it is a congenital lesion .Males

111

were affected more (57.1%). The commonest presenting symptom was

increase the size of the head (57.1%) which comparable with literature (70)

.Seizures were detected higher in our study (57.1%) than that mentioned by

Gomez in his study (25.7%) (70). Cranial nerves lesion was detected in

(28.6%).

The commonest site for the lesion was temporal in (49.2%), this result

was comparable with literature (101) then frontal in (28.6%).Midline shift and

ventricular dilatation were detected in (42.8%).

Dermoid cyst was detected in (4.9%) of all cases, All the cases below 5

years. Male were commonly affected (60%). The commonest presenting

symptoms are those of increase intra cranial pressure (increase size of the

head and vomiting) in (60.0%), in literature it is reported that dermoid cysts

can be space-occupying masses because of increasing CSF retention, which

may be due to a ball-valve mechanism or to inadequate communication,the

frequently associated hydrocephalus, can be due to mechanical factors(77) .

Meningioma was detected in (2.9%) of all cases, Abu Salih and Abdul

Rahman found that meningioma was the commonest brain tumour in their

study; this was true for adult population (6).

Age distribution was equal in all age group (33.3%) and males were

affected more (66.7%) this not in keep with literature that mentioned females

112

are common affected than males (13), but this may be due to the small size of

the affects only 3 patients.

Ependymoma accounts for (3.9%) for all cases of SOLs. The

commonest age group was below 5 years (75.0%),this result goes with

literature mentioning that it is more common in young children(101). males

and females were equally affected. The commonest presenting symptoms

were headache, vomiting and seizures (50%). Cranial nerves lesion was

detected in (50.0%). The commonest site was occipital in (50.0%) which

was incomparable with literature which mentioned the 4th ventricle as the

common site (101); this difference may be due to the small size of patients.

Craniopharyngioma was detected in (4.9%) of all cases. The

commonest age group was between 5-10 years (60.0%), which was

comparable with literature (101). Headache and vomiting were the commonest

presenting symptoms in (80.0%), this result was different from the study

mentioned that visual deficits and endocrine dysfunctions are the most

frequent presenting symptoms(101),however children frequently presented

with symptoms of increased intracranial pressure.

The commonest sites for the lesion were occipital and suprasellar in

(40.0%) and occupied both sellar and supra sellar regions in (20.0%), this

was comparable with literature which mentioned sellar and supra sellar as

113

commonest sites (3). Calcification was detected in (80.0%) of cases and it was

found to be significant as mentioned in literature (3).

Although tuberculosis was a common endemic disease in our country, it

seems to be that brain tuberculoma is underdaignosed (1.9%), Ramamurthi

mentioned that tuberculomas of the brain in children constitute 5% to 8% of

intracranial space occupying lesions in developing countries, the image

morphology of tuberculoma could simulate other lesions like gliomas (96).

Two patients (1.9%) had hydatid cysts, this result comparable with

literature mentioned that the incidence of hydatid is (2%) (12) and (1%) (83) in

another source , however Mustafa reported higher result (2.5%). In the 2

patients no evidence of extracranial hydatid cyst was detected.

114

CONCLUSION

Different types of intracranial SOLs were identified. Neoplastic

conditions accounts for the majority of all intracranial SOLs.

The commonest intracranial SOL was astrocytoma followed by

abscess and medulloblastoma.

Intracranial SOLs are more common in males and all age groups are

affected.

The commonest clinical presentations were that of raised intracranial

pressure, headache and vomiting seem to be important signs for

serious problems.

Intracranial SOLs commonly located supratentorial , while tumours

commonly located infratentorially mainly the cerebellum.

The benign conditions were more common in age group <5 years and

the malignant conditions were more common in age group <10 years.

Malignant lesions commonly affected males.

Benign conditions more operable than the malignant conditions and

malignant lesions more needed for ventriculoperitoneal shunts.

115

Incidence of tuberculoma was found to be less than expected therefore

a high index of clinical suspicion in addition to proper investigations

for tuberculosis should be considered.

Some associated diseases were detected which may need further

studies.

Imaging studies were helpful in detecting the lesions and their

secondary effects. In some lesions the finding has a high validity.

116

RECOMMENDATIONS

Simple complaint like headache and vomiting must be considered and

appropriately evaluated.

Proper history taking and proper examination should be executed to

detect the symptoms and signs of the intracranial space occupying

lesions early enough to offer better opportunity for better outcome.

Imaging techniques should be utilized early in the presentation; MRI

might offer better chance for detection of lesions at an early stage.

Early interactions to relief the increased I.C.P by placement of V.P

shunts.

There is a need for performing more biopsies for reaching the final

diagnosis in accessible tumours.

Emphasis on diagnosis of SOL in undergraduate curricular and CPD

courses for general practitioners stressing the importance of early

referral.

Decentralization of services by establishment of regional diagnostic

centers and specialized team.

117

Training more paediatrics neurologists, neurosurgeons and

radiologists to deal with cases in the district hospitals.

118

REFERENCES

1. Mark Wiles. Brain tumours. In: Sir John Walton, editor. Brain

Diseases of the Nervous System, 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford Medical

Publications; 1985.p. 143-172.

2. McKinney PA. Brain tumours: incidence, survival, and aetiology. J

Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 2004;75: ii12.

3. Robert HA. Brain tumours in children. In: Richard E, Bhrman S,

Robert M, Kliegman Z, Jenson HB, editors. Nelson Text Book of

Pediatrics, 16th ed. Philadelphia: WB. Saunders; 2000.p1862.1859

4. Tomita T. Pediatric brain tumours, overall review. Chicago, Illinois.

J Child Neurol 1995; 20(1): 283-88.

5. Teddy PJ. Intracranial tumours. In: Weatherall DJ, Ledingham JGG,

Warrell DA, editors. Oxford Textbook of Medicine, 3rd ed. Oxford:

Medical Publication; 1996.p.4029-4040.

6. Abu-Salih HS, Abdul-Rahaman AM. Tumors of the brain in the

Sudan. Surg Neurology 1988; 29(3):199-96.

7. Bella ME. Elsherif. The Pattern of Malignant disease in children

presenting to Khartoum hospitals. MD Thesis; University of

Khartoum, Sudan. 1982-1983.p132.

8. Jamjoom ZAB. Pattern of intracranial space-occupying lesions: the

119

experience at King Khalid University Hospital. Ann Saudi Med

1989;9: 3-10.

9. Wanyoike PK. Posterior cranial fossa tumours in children at Kenyatta

National Hospital, Nairobi. East Afr Med J 2004;81(5):258-60.

10. Mwang'ombe NJ, Ombachi RB. Brain tumours at the Kenyatta

National Hospital, Nairobi. East Afr Med J 2000; 77(8):444-7.

11. Desai KI, Nadkarni TD, Muzumdar DP. Prognostic factors for

cerebellar astrocytomas in children: a study of 102 cases. Pediatr

Neurosurg 2001; 35(6):311-7.

12. Coleman MP, Babb P, Damiecki D. Cancer survival trends in

England and Wales, 1971–1995: deprivation and NHS region. Studies

in medical and population subjects No. 61. London: Stationery

Office; 1999.p713-714.

13. Wrensch M, Minn Y, Chew T. Epidemiology of primary brain

tumours: current concepts and review of the literature. Neuro-

oncology 2002; 4: 278–99.

14. Davis FG, McCarthy BJ. Current epidemiological trends and

surveillance issues in brain tumours. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther

2001; 1: 395–401.

15. Al-Mefty O, Al-Rodhan NRF, Phillips RL. Factors affecting survival

120

of children with malignant gliomas. Neurosurgery 1987;20: 416-20.

16. Nicholas AV. Intracranial tumours and state of altered intracranial

pressure. In: Clude JB, Plum F, editors. Cecil Text Book of Medicine,

20th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996.p. 2125-2132.

17. Schliamser SE. Intracranial abscesses in adults: an analysis 54

consecutive cases. Scand J Infect Dis 1988; 20(1):1-9.

18. Mwang'ombe NJ, Ombachi RB. Brain tumours at the Kenyatta

National Hospital, Nairobi. East Afr Med J 2000; 77(8):444-7.

19. World Health Organization. The world health report. Geneva: WHO;

1998.

20. Gutman LT, Moye J, Zimmer B, Tian C. Tuberculosis in human

immunodeficiency virus-exposed or infected United States children.

Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994; 13: 963-68.

21. March-Ayuela. Trend in tuberculous meningitis in Barcelona in

children 0-4 years: correlation with the annual risk of tuberculosis

infection. Tuber Lung Dis 1994; 75: 423-28.

22. Yechoor VK, Shandera WX, Rodriguez P. Tuberculous meningitis

among adults with and without HIV infection. Arch Int Med 1996;

156: 1710-716.

23. Tartaglione T, Di Lella GM, Cesare A. Diagnostic imaging of

121

neurotuberculosis. Neurol Surg 1998; 23: 164-80.

24. Raviglione MC, Snider D, Kochi A. Global epidemiology of

tuberculosis. Morbidity and mortality of worldwide epidemic. JAMA

1995; 273:220-26.

25. Drobniewski FA, Pablos-Mendes A, Raviglione M. Epidemiology

of tuberculosis in the world. Sem Resp Crit Care Med 1997;18:419-

29.

26. Sudan Federal Ministry of Health, Directorate General of Preventive

Medicine. National Tuberculosis Control Programme. Progress

Report 2005. Khartoum: NTP; 2006.

27. El-Sony AL, Baraka O, Enarson DA. Tuberculosis control in Sudan

against seemingly insurmountable odds. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis

2000;4(7):657-64.

28. Sudan Federal Ministry of Health, National Health Information

Center. Annual Health Statistical Report 2004. MOH; Khartoum:

2005.

29. Mustafa SA. Clinical pattern of intracranial space occupying lesions

in adult Sudanese patients. MD Thesis. University of Khartoum;

122

Sudan. 1999p. 128.

30. Green PH. Tubercular meningitis. Lancet 1836; ii: 232-35.

31. Rich AR, McCordick HA. The pathogenesis of tuberculous

meningitis. Bulletin 1933; 52: 5-37.

32. Jenkins PA. The microbiology of tuberculosis. In: PDO Davies,

editor. Clinical tuberculosis. London: Chapman and Hall Medical;

1994.p.743.

33. Lincoln EM, Sordillo SUR, Davies PA. Tuberculous meningitis in

children. J Paediatr 1960; 57: 807-23.

34. Dastur DK, Udani PM. Pathology and pathogenesis of tuberculous

encephalopathy. Acta Neuropathol 1966;6: 311-26.

35. Kent SJ, Crowe SM, Yung A. Tuberculous meningitis: a 30 year

review. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 17: 987-94.

36. Donald, JF Schoeman, Van Zyl LE. Intensive short course

chemotherapy in the management of tuberculous meningitis. Int J

Tuberclung Dis 1998; 2: 704-11.

37. Illingworth RS. Miliary and meningeal tuberculosis. Lancet 1996;

ii:646-49.

123

38. Karstaedt AS, Valtchanova S, Barriere R. Tuberculous meningitis in

South African urban adults. J Med 1988;91:743-47.

39. Berenguer J, Moreno S, Laguna F. Tuberculous meningitis in

patients with human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med

1992;326: 668-72.

40. Verdon R, Chevret S, Laissy JP. Tuberculous meningitis in adults:

review of 48 cases. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22:982-88.

41. Dube MP, Holtom PD, Larsen RA. Tuberculous meningitis in

patients with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection.

Am J Med 1992; 93:520-24.

42. Leonard J, Des Prez RM. Tuberculous meningitis. Infect Dis Clin

North Am 1990; 4:769-87.

43. Humphries MJ, Teoh R, Lau J. Factors of prognostic significance in

Chinese children with tuberculous meningitis. Tubercle 1990;71;161-

68.

44. Smith HV, Vollum RL. The diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis. Br

Med Bull 1954; 10:140-44.

45. Jeren T, Beus I. Characteristics of cerebrospinal fluid in tuberculous

124

meningitis. Acta Cytol 1982; 26:678-80.

46. Bhargava S, Gupta AK, Tandon PN. Tuberculous meningitis: a CT

study. Br J Radiol 1982; 55:189-96.

47. Ribera E, Martinez-Vazquez JM, Ocana I. Activity of adenosine

deaminase in cerebrospinal fluid for the diagnosis and follow-up of

tuberculous meningitis in adults. J Infect Dis 1987; 155:603-7.

48. World Health Organization. Schistosomiasis. Geneva: World Health

Organization; 1996. p. 1-4.

49. Andrade ZA. The situation of hepatosplenic schistosomiasis in Brazil

today. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 1998; 93 (suppl. 1): 313-16,

50. Pittella JE, Lana-peixoto MA. Brain involvement in hepatoesplenic

schistosomiasis mansoni. Brain 1981; 104: 621-32.

51. Scrimgeour EM. Non-traumatic paraplegia in northern Tanzania. Br

Med J 1981; 283: 975-78.

52. Magambo JK, Zeyhle E, Wachira TM. Prevalence of intestinal

parasite among children in southern Sudan. East Afr Med J

1998;75(5):288-90.

53. Ismail AE. Prevalence of intestinal protozoa and parasites infestations

among under five children in Jabel Aweleia Governorate, Khartoum

125

State. MD Thesis; University of Khartoum, Sudan: 2005.p.130.

54. Marnell F, Guillet A, Holland C. A survey of the intestinal

helminthes of refugees in Juba, Sudan. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1992;

86(4):387-93.

55. Mahmoud AAF. Trematodes (schistosomiasis) and other flukes. In:

Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, editors. Mandel, Douglas, and

Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 5th ed . New

York: Churchill Livingstone; 2000. p. 2950-953.

56. Ferrari TC. Involvement of central nervous system in the

schistosomiasis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2004; 99(suppl 1): 59-62.

57. Pittella JE. The relation between involvement of the central nervous

system in schistosomiasis mansoni and the clinical forms of

parasitosis: a review. J Trop Med Hyg 1991; 94: 15-21.

58. Pittella JE. Neuroschistosomiasis. Brain Pathol 1997;7:649-62.

59. Scrimgeour EM, Gajdusek DC. Involvement of the central nervous

system in Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium infection: a

review. Brain 1985; 108: 1023-38.

60. Ferrari TC. Involvement of central nervous system in the

schistosomiasis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2004; 99 (suppl 1): 59-62.

61. Silva LCS, Maciel PE, Ribas JGR. Schistosomal

126

myeloradiculopathy. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2004; 37: 261-72.

62. Lesprit, P, Adle-Biasette H, Liance M. Photo quiz: cerebral s.

mansoni infection. Clin infect Dis 2001; 32: 1347-371.

63. Urban CD, Piovesan EJ, Almeida SM. Acute schistosomiasis with the

brain involvement: case report. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 1996; 54(4): 677-

82.

64. Nascimento-Carvalho CM, Moreno-Carvalho OA. Clinical and

cerebrospinal fluid findings in patients less than 20 years old with a

presumptive diagnosis of neuroschistosomiasis. J Trop Paediatr 2004;

50: 98-100

65. Pammenter MD, Haribhai HC, Epstein SR. The value of

immunological approaches to the diagnosis of schistosomal

myelopathy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1991; 44: 329-35 .

66. Ropper AH, Stemmer-Rachamimov A. A 31-year-old man with an

apparent seizure and a mass in the right parietal lobe. N Engl J Med

2001; 345: 126-31.

67. Braga BP, Costa-Júnior LB, Lambertucci JR. Magnetic resonance

imaging of cerebellar schistosomiasis mansoni. Rev Soc Bras Med

Trop 2003; 36: 635-36.

68. Robinson RG. Congenital cysts of the brain: arachnoids

127

malformations. Neurol Surg 1971; 4:133-73.

69. Galassi E, Piazza G, Giast G, Frank F. Arachnoid cysts of the middle

fossa: a clinical and radiological study of 25 cases treated surgically.

Surg Neurol 1980; 14: 211-19.

70. Lawton MT, Golfinos JG, Harrington T, Sonntag VKH, Spetzler RF.

Surgical management of intracranial arachnoid cysts. Quarterly

1995; 11:14-8.

71. Baurer BL, Hellweek P, Henry H S, William HS. Arachnoid cyst. In:

Behrman S, Richard E, Hal B. Arachnoid Cyst in Operative

Neurosurgical Techniques, 3rd. New York: WB Saunders; 1995:586-

89.

72. Caldarelli M, Massimi L, Kondageski CD. Intracanial midline

dermoid and epidermoid cyst in children. J Neurosurg 2005;102(1

suppl):135-37.

73. Galassi E, Tognetti F, Frank F, Fagioli L, Nasi MT, Gaist G.

Infratentorial epidermoid cysts. J Neurosurg 1985; 63(2):210-17.

74. Guerina NG, Hsu HW, Meissner HC, Maguire JH. Neonatal serologic

screening and early treatment for congenital Toxoplasma gondii

infection. N Engl J Med 1994; 330:1858-863.

128

75. Jara M, Hsu HW, Eaton RB, Demaria A Jr. Epidemiology of

congenital toxoplasmosis identified by population-based newborn

screening in Massachusetts. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001; 20:1132--135.

76. McAuley J, Boyer KM, Patel D. Early and longitudinal evaluations of

treated infants and children and untreated historical patients with

congenital toxoplasmosis: the Chicago Collaborative Treatment Trial.

Clin Infect Dis 1994; 18:38-72.

77. Powell T. Skull and the brain. In: Chapmann S, Nakielny Reds,

editors. Aids to radiological diagnosis, 3rd ed. London. WB Saunders;

1996:411-17.

78. Altinors N, Bavbek M, and Caner HH, Erdogan B. Central nervous

system hydatidosis in Turkey: a cooperative study and literature

survey analysis of 458 cases. J Neurosurg 2000; 113: 1-8.

79. Nurchi G, Floris F,Montaldo C, Mastio F:Multiple Cerebral Hydatid

Disease:case report with magnetic resonance imaging

study.Neurosurgery1992.30:436-438

80. Krajewski R, Stelmasiak Z. Cerebral Hydatid Cyst in Children.Childs

Nerv Syst1991 Jun; 7(3):154-5.

81. Beggs I. The radiology of hydatid disease. Am J Roentgenol 1985;

145(3): 639-48.

129

82. Lunardi P, Missori P, Di Lorenzo N, Fortuna A. Cerebral hydatidosis

in childhood: a retrospective survey with emphasis on long term

follow up . Neurosurgery 1991; 29:515-18.

83. Abbassioun K, Amirjamshidi A, Moinipoor MT. Hydatid cyst of the

pons. Surg Neurol 1986; 26(3)297-300.

84. Balasubramaniam V, Ramanujam PB, Ramamurthi B. Hydatid

disease of the nervous system. Neurol India 1970; 18: 92-5.

85. Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1978:175-208.

86. Vaquero J, Jimenez C, Martinez R. Growth of hydatid cysts evaluated

by CT scanning after presumed cerebral hydatid embolism. Case

report. J Neurosurg 1982; 75:8

87. Hamza R, Tonibi S, Jamoussi M. Intracranial and orbital hydatid

cysts. Neuroradiology 1982; 22:211-14.

88. Abbassioun K , Amirjamshidi A. Diagnosis and management of

hydatid cyst of the central nervous system. Neurosurg Quarter 2001

Mar;11(1):1-9.

89. Pool JB, Marcial-Rojas RA. Echinococcosis. In: Venkin PJ, Bruyn

GW. Pathology of Protozoal and Helminthic Diseases, 3rded.

Turkana: Williams & Wilkins; 1971.p.635-637.

90. Robinson RG. Hydatid disease affecting the nervous system. Ann R

130

Coll Surg Eng 1960; 26:146-56.

91. Arbab MA, Idris MN, Sokrab TE, Saeed ES, Ali GM, Tariq MY, et

al. Clinical presentation and CAT scan findings in mycetoma of the

head. East Afr Med J 1998; 75(4):243-45.

92. Bein-Schumacher M, Thorn-Klein HJ, Hassler W. Neuroradiological

diagnosis and clinical aspects of giant intracranial aneurysms.

Radiology 1986; 26(1):515-19.

93. Ifran A, Qureshi A. Intracranial space occupying lesions—review of

386 cases. J Pak Med Assoc 1995; 45(12):319-20.

94. Sanchez A, Precioso S, Garcia C. A retrospective study of infant

headache. Rev Neurol 1995; 23 (122):764-68.

95. Mueller D P, Moore SA, Soto Y. MRI spectrum of medulloblastoma.

Clin Imag1992; 16(4):250-5.

96. Ramamurthi B, Ramamurthi R, Vasudevan M. Changing concepts in

the treatment of tuberculomas of the brain. Childs Neuro Syst1986;2

(5):242-3.

97. Meyer P, Orliaguet G, Blanot S. Anesthesia-resuscitation for intracranial

expansive processes in children.Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2002; 21(2):90-

102.

131

98. Hoffman S, Propp JM, Carthy MC. Temporal trends in incidence of

primary brain tumors in the United States,1985-1999.Neuroncol 2006 ;8

(1):27-37.

99. Vaghi MA, Visciani A, Passerini A. Magnetic resonance in the study of

cerebral gliomas. Radiol Med Torino 1986; 72(6):431-8.

100. Mehanz A, Syed AU, Saleem AS. Clinical features and outcome of

cerebral abscess in congenital heart disease. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad

2006; 18(2); 21-4.

101. Andrwe H, Kaye S, Edward R. Laws: Neuronal and neuronal precursor

tumors. In: Tindall B, editor. Brain Tumours an Encyclopedic Approach, 2nd

Ed. London: Churchil Livingstone; 2001.p606.232.

132

Questionnaire

CLINICAL PATTERN AND IMAGING FINDINGS OF INTRACRANIAL SPACE OCCUPYING LESIONS IN CHILDREN

Name …………… Age ……………. Sex …………… Residence……………. Tribe…………… General Symptoms:

• Headache yes no

• Vomiting yes no

• Nausea yes no

• Seizures yes no

• Fever yes no

• Loss of consciousness yes no

• Neck stiffness yes no

• Mental symptom(specify) yes no

• Increase size of the head yes no

Sensory symptoms:

• Loss yes no site...

• Paraesthesias yes no site…

Motor symptoms:

• Unsteadiness yes no s site…

• Tremors yes no site..

• Stiffness yes no site..

• Motor weakness yes no site…

Symptom due to cranial nerve involvement: • Anosmia yes no

• Visual impairment yes (specify) no

• Diplopia yes no

• Squint yes no

• Deviation of the mouth yes no

• Deafness yes no

• Dysphagia yes no

Other symptoms: • Speech disturbance yes no

• Behavioral changes yes (specify) no

• Incontinence yes no

• Gait disturbance yes (specify) no

Past medical history: • TB yes no

• Trauma yes no

• Epilepsy yes no

• Otitis media yes no

• Sinusitis yes no

• Schistosomiasis yes no

Family history: Similar disease yes no Who……….

Other disease yes no What…….. who………….. Drug history: Physical examination:- Wt…………………. Ht…………. Hc…….

Fever yes no

Pallor yes no

Jaundice yes no

Lymph node yes no

i. CVS normal abnormal

ii. RS normal abnormal

iii. Abdomen normal abnormal

iv. Skin condition normal abnormal

v. Nervous system:-

• Oriented yes no

• Dementia yes no

• Confused yes no

• Motor dysphasia yes no

• Comatosed yes no

• GCS…………………

• Cranial nerve lesions: R:

L: Fundoscopy:

• R: normal abnormal specify………..

• L: normal abnormal specify………

Neck:

• Neck stiffness yes no

• Weakness of flexor yes no

• Weakness of extensor yes no

Limbs: R L R L

Wasting Fasiculation Tone Power(grade) Note: increased=3 normal=2 redused=1 Reflexes Biceps Triceps Supinator Knee Anckle Sensation: Touch Pinprick Temperature Vibration Position

Abdominal reflexes

Planter reflex………..( R)………….(L)……………….

Coordination (R) ………..(L)……………R=L R<L R>L

Gait normal abnormal specify…….

The back normal abnormal specify…….

Skull normal abnormal specify……..

Investigation: CBC…………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. RFT……………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………. LFT…………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………. Skull X-ray…………………………………………………………….. MRI:…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Brain CT scan…………………………………….. ………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………… Abdomenal U/S……………………………… …………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………. Histopathology………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………….. Other investigations:………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………..;

Treatment:

a) Medical (specify)………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… b) Surgical (specify)……………………………………………………………. ……………………………………